THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

630.7 

W75b 

No. 326 -344 


uniW 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/wisconsinrye3263moor 


llletin  326.  /\  I 

SO  ■'l  -UNIVERilT/  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARf 


March.  1921 


JPR  1 5 Ml 


DIGEST 


Rye  is  a sandy  soil  crop.  It  conserves  fertility;  it  is 
vigorous  grower;  and  it  is  a good  soil  binder. 


hardy  and 
Pages  3-5 


Rye  is  a good  pasture  and  soiling  crop.  It  grows  so  vigorously 
that  judicious  pasturing  will  not  injure  it  and  its  rapid  growth  in 
spring  makes  it  a favorite  soiling  crop.  Pages  6—8 


Rye  is  both  a food  and  a feed.  Next  to  wheat  it  is  the  cereal  most 
widely  used  for  human  consumption.  It  is  also  quite  widely  used 
for  feeding  stock.  Page  9 

Rye  production  has  been  increased  through  breeding.  The  best 
varieties  are  from  the  Schlanstedt  strain  Pedigree  No.  2,  bred  at 
the  Madison  station,  and  12.19  from  the  Ashland  station. 

Pages  9-12 


Rye  preserves  soil  fertility  but  does  not  add  it.  On  the  heavier 
soils  rye  takes  the  same  place  in  a rotation  as  winter  wheat. 

Pages  15-16 


Rye  has  no  insect  enemies.  Ergot  is  the  most  troublesome  disease 
but  this  may  be  controlled  by  holding  over  the  seed  from  one  year 
to  the  next  or  by  treating  the  seed  with  salt  brine. 


Pages  18-19 


T'j'  ^ 

Wisconsin  Rye 

R.  A.  Moore  and  B.  D.  Leith 

Rye  is  the  most  adaptable  of  small  grain  crops,  which  ac- 
counts for  its  growing  popularity  on  Wisconsin  farms.  It  is 
recognized  as  the  grain  best  suited  to  light  soils  and  to  regions 
where  winter  killing  is  serious,  but  it  adapts  itself  to  rich  soils 
and  favorable  climate.  Where  the  yield  in  pounds  is  no 
greater  than  that  of  wheat  or  barley,  however,  rye  can  hardly 
compete  with  these  crops  as  a market  grain,  since  the  market 
price  per  pound  is  somewhat  lower.  As  a seed  crop,  pedigreed 
rye  can  compete  with  wheat  and  barley,  even  on  the  richer  soils. 

More  acres  of  rye  were  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1919 
than  in  any  previous  year.  More  rye  flour  is  being  eaten  in 
American  homes  now  than  ever  before.  There  is  now  produced 
in  the  United  States  one-tenth  as  much  rye  as  wheat;  and  the 
increase  has  been  steady  since  1914.  In  Wisconsin,  the  1919 
yield  of  over  8,000,000  bushels  is  the  largest  in  the  history  of 
the  state. 

The  area  devoted  to  rye  in  Wisconsin  has  shown  a steady  in- 
crease over  1917.  The  largest  production  is  in  the  central  and 
northwestern  parts  of  the  state,  especially  on  the  sandy  areas. 

The  average  yields  of  small  grains  in  the  state  over  a period 
of  four  years  shows  rye  to  be  the  lowest  producer,  with  barley 
leading  in  number  of  pounds  per  acre.  (See  Table  I.)  A ten- 
year  average  of  the  state  shows  the  same  condition  to  be  true. 
However,  the  yields  from  the  fields  on  the  Hill  Farm  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  (See  Table  I)  and  also  from  the  test 
plots  of  the  Experiment  Station  Farm  (See  Table  II)  show  rye 
to  be  the  heaviest  producer  in  pounds  of  grain  per  acre.  The 
apparent  discrepancy  between  the  yields  of  rye  on  the  Station 
farms  and  in  the  state  as  a whole  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a great 
deal  of  the  rye  produced  in  the  state  is  grown  on  sandy  soils  very 
low  in  fertility.  The  soil  of  the  Station  farms  is  a Miami  silt 
loam  in  a fair  stnte  of  fertility;  and  rye  competes  equally  here 
with  the  other  small  grains. 

Oats  has  yielded  better  than  barley  on  this  soil  because  evi- 
dently there  was  not  sufficient  fertility  in  the  soil  for  a maxi- 
mum yield  of  barley. 

509864 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


TABLE  I. — A COMPARISON  OF  ACRE  YIELDS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  HILL 
FARM  WITH  THE  AVERAGES  OF  THE  STATE 


Winter  rye 

Winter  wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Hill 

Farm 

State 

Hill 

Farm 

State 

Hill 

Farm 

State 

Hill 

Farm 

State 

1917 

Bu. 

| 55.2 

Bu. 

18.5 

Bu. 

30.7 

Bu. 

24.0 

Bu. 

38.9 

Bu. 

32.0 

Bu. 

52.2 

Bu 

44.0 

1918 

32.2 

17.6 

26.9 

21.2 

52.2 

35  .*7 

56.0 

46.6 

1919 

31.7 

15.8 

25.8 

19.6 

35.7 

26.5 

61.6 

33.4 

1920 

41.2 

16.0 

29.7 

22.0 

35.0 

31.7 

79.2 

44.8 

4 yr.  average 

40.7 

17.0 

28.3 

21.7 

40.5 

31.5 

62.3 

42.2 

Lbs.  per  acre... . 

| 2279 

952 

1698 

1302 

1944 

1512 

1£94 

1350 

The  foregoing  table  gives  the  average  yields  per  acre  of  the 
leading  small  grain  crops  of  the  state  compared  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Wisconsin  pedigree  grains  on  the  University 
Farm.  The  increase  in  yield  on  the  University  Farm  is  due 
largely  to  two  factors,  the  increased  producing  power  of  the 
Wisconsin  pedigreed  grains,  and  the  fact  that  several  of  the 
farms  of  the  state  are  on  poor  soil  and  the  fertility  is  not  well 
kept  up.  The  yields  on  the  University  Farm  are  no  greater 
than  any  good  farmer  should  expect  to  get,  as  the  applications 
of  fertilizer  are  not  excessive. 

The  results  shown  in  Table  II  are  taken  from  the  experimental 
plots.  One  twentieth-acre  trial  plots  were  first  used  and  after 


TABLE  II. — COMPA RATI VE  ACRE  YIELDS  OF  LEADING  SMALL  GRAINS 
ON  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  FARM,  MADISON. 


1912 

Bu. 

1913 

Bu. 

1914 

Bu. 

1915 
Bu.  ! 

1916 

Bu. 

1917 

Bu. 

1918 

Bu. 

1919 

Bu. 

1920 

Bu. 

9 yr. 
av. 

Pounds 

per 

acre 

Winter  Rye 
Pedigree  2 
(Schlanstedt) 

53.9 

53.5 

50.7 

39.0 

34.8 

58.0 

45.9 

39.2 

49.2 

47.1 

2,638 

Winter 
Wheat 
Pedigree  2 
(Turkey  Red) 

38.3 

45.0 

45.3 

37.6 

24.6 

51.  4 

17.7 

36.3 

46.7 

37.0 

2,220 

Barley 
Pedigree  6 
(Oderbruck’r) 

47.0 

38.8 

42.8 

58.3 

38.3 

47.1 

65.4 

28.3 

47.9 

46.0 

2,208 

Oats 

Pedigree  1 
(Wisconsin 
Wonder) 

110.6 

75.6 

63.7 

90.0 

71.9 

65.4 

61.5 

61.6 

81,7 

75.7 

2,422 

Wisconsin  Rye 


5 


1915  the  tests  were  made  on  one-fortieth  acre  plots  in  duplicate. 
The  field  used  for  test  purposes  is  as  uniform  as  possible  in  soil 


MG.  1.— WISCONSIN  ACREAGE  OF  RYE— 1920 
The  largest  production  is  in  the  central  and  northwestern  parts  of  the  state,  espe- 
cially on  the  sandy  areas. 

and  fertility,  and  the  small  acreage  used  affords  opportunity  to 
test  many  varieties  side  by  side. 

Why  Plant  Rye? 

Rye  is  primarily  a sandy  soils  crop.  Sown  in  the  fall,  it  uses 
plant  food  that  would  otherwise  be  lost  by  leaching  with  the 
fall  and  early  spring  rains.  Being  a hardy  and  vigorous 
grower,  it  gets  a good  start  in  the  fall  and  lives  through  the 
winter  with  little  or  no  damage  from  winterkilling. 

Rye  is  quite  efficient  in  preventing  blowing  of  soil,  another 
reason  for  the  favor  in  which  the  crop  is  held  in  light  soil 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


sections.  In  areas  where  the  force  of  the  wind  is  especially 
great,  however,  even  the  deep  root  growth  of  rye  may  not 
be  enough  to  hold  the  plants,  and  the  rye  may  be  torn  away, 
roots  and  all. 


FIG.  2— VIGOROUS  AND  HARDY,  RYE  GROWS  WELL  ON  LIGHT  SOILS 

Sown  in  the  fall,  rye  makes  a good  growth  before  winter  sets  in,  resisting  winter- 
killing  and  using  plant  food  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  On  fairly  good  soils,  as  in 
this  field,  rye  grows  to  be  6 feet  in  height. 

Rye  Is  a Good  Nurse  Crop.  It  is  off  the  ground  very  early, 
giving  the  young  clover  plants  more  opportunity  to  develop. 
It  shades  the  ground  very  little.  The  leaves  dry  up  some  time 
before  the  grain  is  ripe,  and  the  straw  does  not  lodge  easily. 

Rye  Is  Double  Purpose  Crop.  Rye  sown  for  the  grain  is 
often  used  as  a pasture  crop.  Many  farmers  plan  the  rye 
crop  for  both  seed  and  pasture.  They  pasture  until  almost 


Wisconsin  Rye 


7 


heading  time  and,  unless  there  is  a very  unfavorable  season, 
they  get  a good  crop  of  grain. 

From  rye  sown  in  August  a good  growth  will  result  the 
same  fall,  and  pasturing  will  not  be  injurious  to  the  crop.  It 
may  even  be  beneficial,  if  the  growth  has  become  very  rank. 

Sometimes  spring  pasturing  'is  practiced.  After  the  ground 
is  firm  there  is  little  danger  of  damage  , from  trampling.  When 
rye  is  being  used  as  a nurse  crop  the  trampling  may  even  be 
somewhat  beneficial,  in  that  it  presses  the  seeds  into  the  ground 
The  rye  yield  will  probably  be  reduced  somewhat  by  spring  pas- 
turing, but  the  value  of  the  pasture  should  make  up  for  this  loss. 


Rye  on  Sandy  Soil 

Conserves  soil  fertility 

Prevents  soil  blowing 

Is  one  of  the  best  nurse  crops 

Affords  a good  pasture  and  soiling  crop 

Is  a good  food  for  both  people  and  livestock 


If  no  clover  has  been  seeded,  the  rye  can  be  sown  in  the 
stubble  of  rye  of  the  previous  year  just  after  the  crop  has 
been  removed  from  the  field.  On  a light  soil  with  a single 
disc  drill,  the  rye  can  be  put  in  without  any  previous  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil.  It  will  be  in  the  ground  in  time  to  have  a 
good  chance  to  be  sprouted  by  the  late  summer  rains.  An 
excellent  fall  pasture  will  result,  and  the  bottom  will  be  so 
thick  usually  that  a good  spring  pasture  can  be  had.  On  or 
before  the  middle  of  May,  the  rye  that  remains  should  be 
plowed  under  for  green  manure  and  the  land  planted  to  corn 
or  soybeans. 

The  warm  summer  and  fall  rains  release  the  nitrates  in  the 
soil  as  well  as  much  of  the  phosphates  and  potash.  The  rye 
makes  its  growth  on  these  elements,  thus  preventing  their 
leaching  out  and  being  lost.  In  order  to  offset  the  fertility 
used  for  pasture,  a light  topdressing  of  manure  is  usually  added 
during  the  winter.  This  plan  combines  a pasture  and  green 
manure  without  loss  in  fertility.  If  no  topdressing  is  avail- 
able, and  the  rye  is  to  be  used  as  a green  manure,  it  is  fre- 
quently inadvisable  to  pasture  in  the  spring,  as  too  much  fertil- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


ity  is  removed  and  the  success  of  the  following  crop  is  doubtful. 
It  has  been  found,  however,  that  on  the  best  lands  in  northern 
Wisconsin,  including  the  Marshfield  ;district,  topdressing  of 
the  rye  crop  induces  rank  growth  and  consequent  lodging. 

Rye  for  Soiling.  Where  soiling  is  practiced  rye  is  often 
used.  Its  early  vigorous  growth  in  spring  makes  it  the  best 
cereal  crop  for  this  purpose. 


FIG.  3. — RYE  IS  A VALUABLE  NURSE  CROP 

Rye  is  off  the  ground  early,  giving  the  young  clover  plants  a chance  to  develop.  The 
straw  does  not  easily  lodge. 


Rye  Is  an  Adaptable  Crop.  Rye  has  advantages  in  time 
of  seeding  that  recommend  it  to  farmers  as  an  adaptable  crop- 
It  can  be  sown  in  this  state  from  August  1 to  November  lr 
considerably  later  than  winter  wheat  can  be  sown.  It  is  fre- 
quently sown  to  good  advantage  in  corn  or  soybeans  at  the 
last  cultivation.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  state  excellent 
results  have  been  obtained  by  sowing  after  the  corn  crop  was 
harvested  for  silage.  There  is  no  need  of  plowing  in  such  ai 
case  and  disking  or  spring-toothing,  followed  by  harrowing,  fits 
the  ground.  On  sandy  land  the  rye  may  be  drilled  in  without 
previous  preparation,  especially  after  peas  and  soybeans.  This 
method  saves  time,  because  there  is  no  plowing,  and  it  also  has 
the  advantage  of  controlling  weeds.  Yields  of  20  to  45  bushels 
on  fields  of  5 acres  and  more  have  been  obtained  by  such  sowing 


Wisconsin  Rye 


9 


at  Ashland,  Spooner,  Conrath,  and  Marshfield  stations.  An- 
other crop  which  rye  may  follow  is  potatoes,  or  even  roots.  Rye 
is  sown  after  the  crop  is  harvested. 

Rye  As  Food  and  Feed.  Aside  from  the  value  of  the  crop 
in  the  farm  rotation,  rye  is,  of  course,  a valuable  food  and 
feed  crop.  In  many  European  countries  bread  is  made  from 
pure  rye  flour,  but  in  the  United  States  a considerable  amount 
of  wheat  flour  is  usually  mixed  with  it.  The  pure  rye  flour 
makes  a heavy,  soggy  loaf,  with  a strong  rye  flavor.  Wheat 
flour  has  much  more  gluten,  hence  a mixture  of  wheat  with 
rye  makes  a lighter  loaf  than  the  pure  rye  flour  will  make, 
and  the  rye  flavor  is  not  so  strong. 

Rye  is  often  used  as  a feed  for  farm  animals,  but  it  should 
not  be  fed  alone  nor  in  large  amounts,  as  it  is  likely  to  cause 
digestive  disturbances.  As  a feed  for  swine,  rye  meal  ranks 
a little  below  cornmeal  and  is  about  equal  to  barley  meal. 
It  should  be  fed  with  shorts,  bran,  ground  oats,  or  ground 
barley.  As  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the  feed  may  be  rye  meal, 
provided  the  feed  with  which  it  is  mixed  is  not  too  heavy. 

Fed  in  large  amounts  to  cows,  rye  produces  a hard,  dry 
butter,  but  in  limited  amount  and  mixed  with  other  feeds  it 
has  given  good  results. 

In  Germany  from  £ to  4 pounds  daily  for  each  animal  has 
been  fed  to  horses,  in  combination  with  oats  or  barley,  the 
grains  preferably  being  crushed  and  mixed  wih  cut  straw.  Care 
must  be  exercised  in  feeding  rye  to  horses,  as  colic  is  likely 
to  result. 

Rye  straw  is  highly  valued  as  a bedding  for  horses,  as  it 
makes  a cleaner  bed  than  other  straws.  It  is  used  also  for 
packing  furniture,  crockery,  and  nursery  stock,  and  it  is  often 
used  for  stuffing  horse  collars.  It  is  of  little  value  for  stock 
feeding,  as  it  is  woody  and  coarse. 

Breeding  Work  Produces  High-Yielding  Rye1 

Practically  all  the  rye  grown  in  this  state  is  Wisconsin 
Pedigree.  This  strain  has  been  produced  from  four  varieties: 
the  Petkus,  and  Schlanstedt,  introduced  into  the  state  from 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1900;  the 
Ivanoff,  introduced  in  1904;  and  the  Minnesota  No.  1,  intro- 
duced in  1902. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


These  ryes  were  put  into  test  plots  to  compare  yielding 
power.  Many  of  the  finest  heads  were  selected  from  each 
strain  and  planted  to  establish  new  lines.  After  discarding 
many  plants  and  selecting  the  best  for  five  years,  a few  of  the 
very  best  remaining  were  finally  pedigreed.  In  later  tests 
further  selections  reduced  the  number  to  one  pedigree  line  from 
each  strain.  Re-selections  and  further  improvement  determined 
that  Pedigree  No.  2,  from  the  Schlanstedt  is  the  best  strain  for 
Wisconsin. 


FIG.  4.— HIGH  YIELDS  ARE  OBTAINED  FROM  BRED-FOR-PRODUOTION  GRAIN 


Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2,  which  has  been  bred  for  20  years  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station,  yields  from  5 to  10  bushels  an  acre  more  than  the  best  of  the 
unpedigreed  strains. 


The  20  years  of  breeding  put  upon  this  rye  have  raised  it 
to  a high  standard  of  excellence.  Table  II  shows  the  yields  of 
the  pedigreed  strains  in  the  test  plots.  Pedigree  No.  2,  it 
will  be  noticed,  has  been  tested  for  yield  for  10  years,  and 
the  last  5-year  average  is  1.1  bushel  higher  than  the  first  5- 
year  average. 

Distribution  of  Pedigree  Strains.  The  first  dissemination 
of  pedigree  ryes  was  made  in  1910  to  the  members  of  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Association.  About  200  members  tested 
these  ryes  the  first  year  and  125  carried  on  tests  in  1911.  Re- 
ports showed  an  increase  in  yield  of  61/2  bushels,  comparing 
Wisconsin  pedigreed  rye  with  the  best  other  rye  grown.  Since 
that  time  rye  has  been  sent  out  from  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 


Wisconsin  Rye 


11 


Station  to  all  corners  of  the  state  and  to  many  other  states 
and  foreign  countries. 

A New  Northern  Rye.  At  the  Ashland  Branch  Station,  E.  J. 
Delwiche  has  developed  Pedigree  No.  12.19,  also  a selection  from 
the  Schlanstedt,  somewhat  shorter  in  straw  than  the  Pedigree 
No.  2.  Being  a good  yielder  it  is  finding  much  favor  in  the 
northern  sections  of  the  state.  The  yield  reported  on  trial 
plots  at  Marshfield  in  1917  was  63  bushels  an  acre  and  in  1918, 
62  bushels  an  acre.  Good  yields  were  also  obtained  at  Ashland, 
Spooner,  and  Conrath  Stations. 


Rye  Facts 

Wisconsin’s  1919  rye  crop  of  8,069,000  bushels  was  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  the  state. 

Rye  is  the  hardiest  small  grain  crop  grown  in  Wiscon- 
sin. 

Twenty  years  of  selective  breeding  have  been  put  upon 
the  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2. 

Pedigree  12.19  is  a promising  new  selection. 

In  a 9-year  test  on  the  Miami  silt  loam  soil  of  the  Sta- 
tion Farm  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  pedigreed  rye 
outyielded  the  other  small  grains  in  pounds  of 
grain  per  acre. 


Rye  Is  a Vigorous  Plant 

The  rye  plant  grows  from  4 to  6 feet  tall  and  stools  profusely. 
It  is  deep-rooted  and  very  hardy.  The  heads  are  long,  slender, 
and  nearly  square.  The  kernels  are  ranged  in  two  rows  on 
either  side  of  the  head,  protruding  from  the  glumes.  The  color 
of  rye  kernels  varies  from  green  to  yellow  and  brownish.  They 
are  quite  soft  in  texture  and  make  a darker  flour  than  those 
from  wheat. 

The  Rye  Kernel.  Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
selection  of  rye  for  color  of  kernel  in.  the  United  States.  But 
the  European  breeders  have  recognized  these  color  differences 
and  have  established  green  types,  yellow  types,  types  with  little 
or  no  yellow,  and  a mixture  of  both.  As  a rule  the  American 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


rye  miller  discriminates  against  the  green  ryes  as  they  make 
a darker,  heavier  bread  with  a strong  rye  odor. 

The  Wisconsin  pedigree  ryes  are  predominatingly  yellow- 
kerneled  with  some  mixture  of  green.  The  Rosen,  recently 
developed  at  the  Michigan  Station  is  a greenish-kerneled  rye. 
The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  has  developed  a yellow-kern- 
eled  rye  which  they  call  Mammoth  White.  This  has  not  proved 
so  high  a yielder  on  the  Station  plots  as  the  Wisconsin  pedigree. 
So,  even  though  it  may  be  superior  in  appearance,  it  cannot 
be  recommended  for  Wisconsin  conditions. 

How  to  Handle  the  Crop 

Loose  Mellow  Seed  Bed  Best.  The  seed  bed  should  be  firm 
beneath,  with  2 or  3 inches  of  loose,  mellow  soil  on  the  upper 
surface.  Some  farmers  sow  the  rye  in  corn  at  the  last  cultiva- 
tion op  in  potatoes  at  the  time  of  digging;  others  disk  it  in  on 
the  corn  stubble.  It  is  advisable  to  plow  a week  or  two  before 
planting  so  as  to  give  the  ground  time  to  settle.  Should  it 
happen,  as  is  often  the  case,  that  plowing  cannot  be  finished 
until  just  before  seeding  time,  firm  the  land  with  a roller  as 
soon  as  possible  after  plowing. 

This  brings  the  particles  of  soil  together  and  prevents  drying 
out.  The  corrugated  roller  also  leaves  the  surface  in  a fine 
mulch,  thus  preventing  further  loss  of  moisture  through  evap- 
oration. On  clay  land  where  the  ground  is  hard  and  lumps 
are  turned  up  by  the  plow,  it  may  be  necessary  to  harrow  at 
the  close  of  each  day’s  plowing.  One  or  two  harrowings  well 
done  may  be  enough  compacting  and  pulverizing,  and  the  use 
of  the  corrugated  roller  may  not  be  necessary. 

Rye  Should  Be  Drilled.  A drill  places  the  grain  deep  in 
the  ground,  where  it  is  more  likely  to  obtain  moisture.  The 
slight  ridges  left  by  the  drill  also  offer  some  protection  in  hold- 
ing the  snow  in  winter.  The  grain  is  quite  uniformly  covered 
at  a depth  of  2 or  3 inches,  depending  upon  the  looseness  of 
the  soil.  This  point  is  highly  important  in  seeding  on  light 
soils.  It  is  not  advisable  to  harrow  after  the  drill  in  fall 
seeding. 

Heavy  Seedings  Do  Not  Pay.  The  usual  rate  of  seeding 
rye  is  1 y2  bushels  an  acre.  On  fertile  soils  an  increase  above  this 
rate  usually  does  not  pay  for  the  extra  seed  used.  As  a nurse 


Wisconsin  Rye 


13 


crop  on  sandy  soils,  rye  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  3 pecks 
to  1 bushel  an  acre.  The  plant  food  in  such  soils  is  often  so 
limited  that  it  cannot  support  an  ordinary  rye  crop  and  clover 
besides.  A heavy  nurse 
crop  takes  large  quantities 
of  moisture  and  shades  the 
clover  so  much  that,  when 
the  rye  is  cut,  the  sudden 
exposure  of  the  clover  to 
the  hot  July  sun  dries  up 
the  plants  and  may  kill 
them. 

It  Pays  To  Plant  Clean 

Seed.  Rye  should  be  care- 
fully cleaned  on  the  fan- 
ning mill.  This  removes 
weed  seeds,  light  kernels, 
chaff,  and  straws,  and  often 
a considerable  amount  of 
ergot,  leaving  the  large, 
plump  kernels  that  will 
sprout  and  grow.  (See  page 
19  for  treatment  to  remove 
ergot.) 

Rye  will  not  germinate 
well  immediately  after  har- 
vesting. Three  or  four 
weeks  resting  period  seems 
to  be  necessary  before  all 
the  seed  will  grow.  Before 
the  planting  time  arrives, 
however,  enough  time  will 
have  gone  by  since  harvest- 
ing to  assure  perfect  ger- 
mination. 

Loss  from  Weathering 
Exceeds  Cost  of  Stacking. 

Rye  is  cut  with  the  self- 
binder,  the  same  as  other  cereals.  Particular  attention  should 
be  given  to  protecting  the  shocks  with  cap  sheaves,  as  warm 


FTG.  5 — RYE  MAKES  A THICK  STAND 

The  typical  rye  plant  is  tall,  stifT- 
strawed,  deep-rooted,  and  vigorous  in 
growth.  Its  habit  of  profuse  stooling  gives 
thick  stand. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


FIG.  6.— WELL-CAPFED  SHOCKS  ARK  PROTECTED  FROM  SPROUTING 

The  rye  harvest  comes  at  a time  ’when  warm  rains  are  likely  to  occur  and  .cause 
sprouting-.  A shock  well-capped  to  shed  the  rain,  with  some  space  within  the  bundles 
at  the  base  to  prevent  smothering  the  clover  seeding,  is  desirable. 


FIG.  7.— GRAIN  FROM  SHOCK  THRESHING  REQUIRES  CAREFUL  HANDLING 


If  rye  is  threshed  from  the  shock,  the  grain  should  be  spread  out  where  there  is 
free  circulation  of  air  and  watched  carefully  to  prevent  heating.  This  extra  labor 
is  only  justified  when  the  machine  is  ready  to  thresh  the  grain  as  goon  as  it  is  dry, 
thus  getting  the  crop  off  the  field  earlier. 


Wisconsin  Rye 


15 


rains  often  occur  about  the  time  of  rye  harvesting  and  cause 
considerable  sprouting.  If  the  round  shock  is  used,  care  must 
be  taken  to  leave  some  space  between  the  bundles  at  the  base, 
or  the  clover  seeding  will  be  killed. 

Stacking  is  preferable  to  shock  threshing.  As  a rule,  the 
damage  from  weathering  in  the  shock  is  more  than  enough  to 
pay  for  the  trouble  of  stacking.  Shock  threshing  is  advised 
only  when  a machine  can  be  had  to  thresh  just  when  the  grain 
is  dry  enough  to  stack.  In  this  case,  the  greater  amount  of 
grain  removed  from  the  field  in  a day  will  justify  the  extra 
labor  needed  in  handling  the  threshed  grain. 

The  grain  from  shock  threshing  should  be  spread  1 or  2 feet 
deep  on  a floor  where  air  circulation  is  good.  It  will  need  close 
watching  So  that  prompt  measures  may  be  taken  to  prevent 
heating.  If  the  weather  is  hot  and  somewhat  damp  the  danger 
of  heating  is  greater  than  usual.  Whenever  a rise  in  temper- 
ature can  be  noted  in  the  grain,  it  must  be  shoveled  over. 

Rotations  With  Rye 

On  the  heavier  soils,  rye  takes  the  same  place  in  a rotation  as 
winter  wheat.  (See  Bui.  305 — Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin.) 
On  the  light  soils,  the  rotation  is  planned  with  the  preservation 
of  fertility  in  mind.  Rye  does  not  add  fertility,  but  it  is  very 
valuable  in  preserving  it. 

The  rotation  given  below  is  primarily  intended  to  build  up 
soil  fertility  on  sandy  soils : 

1.  Soybeans  for  seed  or  hay. 

2.  Rye  sown  early  for  green  manure  or  pasture;  to  be  top- 
dressed  in  winter. 

3.  Corn  or  soybeans;  plow  rye  under  in  spring. 

4.  Rye  for  grain;  seed  to  clover  in  the  spring. 

5.  Mammoth  clover. 

Where  rye  is  grown  primarily  for  the  grain,  this  rotation  is 

suggested : 

1.  Rye  topdressed  and  seeded  to  clover  in  the  spring. 

2.  Mammoth  clover  or  medium  red  clover. 

3.  Corn  or  soybeans. 

The  second  rotation  introduces  clover  once  in  three  years  and 
there  is  a possibility  of  another  legume  crop,  soybeans.  Mam- 
moth clover  is  suggested  in  preference  to  medium  red,  as  it 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


thrives  better  on  the  sandy  soils  where  building  up  fertility  is 
important.  Growing  crops  are  on  the  ground  practically  the 
year  around,  making  the  fullest  use  of  the  fertility  present. 
Pasture  does  not  appear  in  this  rotation,  but  some  pasture  can 
be  had  from  the  rye  and  some  from  the  clover.  Silage  or  soil- 
ing crops  should  furnish  the  rest  of  the  succulent  feed.  On 
the  sandy  soils  the  problem  of  saving  fertility  does  not  admit 
the  practice  of  a 4-year  rotation  wherein  timothy  can  be  grown 
with  clover. 

Rotation  Used  on  Hill  Farm  at  Madison 

1.  Rye,  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy 

2.  Clover  and  timothy 

3.  Pasture 

4.  Corn 

In  this  rotation  rye  is  sown  on  the  area  from  which  silage  has 
been  removed.  It  is  one  of  the  best  rotations  in  regions  where 
dairying  is  practiced.  It  provides  for  pasture  each  year. 

Rotation  Used  at  Ashland  Branch  Station 

1.  Rye 

2.  Barley,  oats,  or  spring  wheat;  seeded  to  clover 

3.  Clover 

4.  Cultivated  crops 

5.  Peas 

This  rotation  is  suitable  to  regions  where  peas  are  grown 
profitably.  As  peas  are  removed  early,  the  ground  can  be  pre- 
pared for  fall-sown  rye  without  difficulty. 

Rotation  Used  at  Spooner  Branch  Station 

1.  Rye,  sown  after  soybeans 

2.  Clover 

3.  Corn  or  potatoes 

4.  Soybeans 

This  is  an  excellent  rotation  for  sandy  soils  as  a legume  is 
grown  every  second  year. 


Wisconsin  Rye 


17 


Grow  Winter  Rye  in  Wisconsin 

There  are  winter  and  spring  varieties  of  rye.  Spring  rye  is 
not  recommended,  as  the  yield  is  not  nearly  so  high  as  that  of 
winter  rye.  (See  Table  III).  This  shows  the  average  yields 
of  two  winter  and  two  spring  ryes. 


TABLE  III. — WINTER  RYE  OUT  YIELDS  SPRING  RYE  AT  MADISON 
STATION  FARM 


1918 

1919 

1920 

Average 

Yield 

per 

acre 

Weight 

per 

bushel 

Yield 

per 

acre 

Weight 

pet- 

bushel 

Yield 

per 

acre 

Weight 

per 

bushel 

Yield 

per 

acre 

Weight 

per 

bushel 

Winter  Rye 

Bu. 

45.7 

Lbs. 

54.5 

Bu. 

37.6 

Lbs. 

55.0 

Bu. 

49.2 

Lbs. 

55.5 

Bu. 

44.1 

Lbs. 

54.8 

Spring  Rye 

31.1 

53.7 

17.2 

49.2 

23.5 

39.4 

23.9 

47.4 

Of  the  winter  varieties  the  Schlanstedt,  Petkus,  and  Ivanoff 
are  the  best  known.  The  Abruzzes  has  found  much  favor  in 
the  South,  but  when  tested  out  at  the  Madison  Station  it  was 
completely  winterkilled  in  the  winter  of  1917-18.  Pedigree 
No.  12.19,  which  was  bred  at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station,  is 
finding  much  favor  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state.  Pedigree 
No.  2 has  made  an  excellent  showing  through,  a long  period  of 
years  (see  Table  II).  The  Rosen  rye  has  recently  come  into 
prominence,  but  a three  years’  test  at  the  Wisconsin  Station 
shows  it  cannot  be  considered  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  Wis- 
consin Pedigree  No.  2.  The  yields  of  the  Rosen  in  some  cases 
have  been  higher  and  in  some  cases  lower.  The  average  of  four 
tests  at  the  Madison  Station  give  37.2  bushels  per  acre  for  the 
Pedigree  2 and  32.6  bushels  per  acre  for  the  Rosen.  In  1918 
the  Rosen  was  very  much  damaged  by  winterkilling.  As  a re- 
sult the  grain  was  badly  shriveled  and  of  no  value  except  for 
feed,  and  the  yield  was  only  11  bushels  per  acre.  As  winter 
hardiness  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  features  of  the  rye  crop 
in  most  parts  of  Wisconsin,  it  seems  unwise  to  recommend  a 
variety  that  is  not  exceedingly  winter-hardy. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  326 


Rye  Crop  Has  Few  Enemies 

Rye  is  comparatively  free  from  damage  by  insects,  and  the 
only  disease  which  causes  serious  damage  is  ergot.  The  black 
bodies  which  are  sometimes  found  in  the  grain,  or  coming  out 
in  the  head  where  the  kernels  should  be,  are  ergot  bodies — the 
resting  stage  of  the  disease.  When  planted  with  the  grain, 
these  bodies  grow  and  cause  further  infection.  The  bodies  are 
poisonous  in  either  food  or  feed  and  will  cause  abortion  if  pres- 
ent in  any  quantity  in  the  grain  fed  to  animals.  For  this  rea- 
son, ergot  must  be  carefully  removed  in  milling  or  the  flour  will 
be  of  poor  quality.  If  much  ergot  is  present,  the  flour  will  be 
poisonous. 


Advantages  of  Winter  Rye 

Winter  rye  is  far  superior  to  spring  rye 
It  can  be  sown  with  safety  much  later  than  winter  wheat 
It  is  not  always  necessary  to  plow  for  fall  rye 
Rotate  and  fertilize  to  get  best  results  with  rye 
Rye  is  comparatively  free  from  damage  by  insects  and 
diseases 


In  many  fields  the  damage  from  ergot  is  so  small  as  to  escape 
notice,  but  when  once  in  the  seed  the  disease  increases  until  it 
becomes  a menace  to  the  crop.  Fields  have  been  found  where 
every  tenth  or  fifteenth  head  had  ergot.  An  infection  as  heavy 
as  this  probably  makes  the  crop  worthless.  The  amount  of  dam- 
age cannot  be  judged  solely  by  the  number  of  black  ergot  bodies 
in  the  grain,  as  many  kernels  which  appear  normal,  or  nearly 
so,  are  blasted  from  ergot  and  will  not  grow. 

Although  the  fanning  mill  takes  out  much  of  the  ergot,  the 
growths  that  are  broken  up  in  threshing  are  so  nearly  the  size 
of  the  rye  kernels  that  they  cannot  be  graded  out  by  the  mill. 
No  treatment  that  will  not  kill  the  sead  will  kill  the  disease. 
Holding  over  the  seed  from  one  year  to  the  next  is  a good  prac- 
tice, since  ergot  loses  its  vitality  at  the  end  of  a year  and  little 
or  no  disease  results. 

The  salt  brine  method  may  be  used  for  ergot.*  The  grain  is 

*See  Wis.  Cir.  94,  Ergot  in  Rye  and  How  to  Remove  It. 


Wisconsin  IIye 


19 


put  in  a concentrated  brine  solution  and  the  affected  kernels 
rise  to  the  top  where  they  are  skimmed  off.  The  seed  is  then 
washed  to  remove  the  salt.  Small  amounts  of  seed  to  be  used 
in  a seed  plot  can  be  treated  in  this  way  with  little  extra  trouble. 
If  sufficient  seed  for  the  next  year ’s  planting  is  grown  in  such  a 
plot  the  ergot  trouble  can  be  entirely  removed.  Care  must  be 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  a breeding  plot,  however,  as  many 
wild  grasses  carry  ergot  and  the  seed  may  become  reinfected  if 
the  disease  is  on  the  grasses  bordering  the  plot. 


I5CDN5I 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STAT 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIf 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Over  $16,000,000  is  invested  in  the  pea  canning  industry  of  Wis- 
consin. Of  this,  farmers  have  $9,000,000  and  canning  companies 
$7,000,000.  The  value  of  the  output  of  canned  peas  for  1919  was 
more  than  $12,000,000.  Pages  4—5 

High  prices  stimulated  many  new  factories  and  brought  Wiscon- 
sin to  leadership  in  the  industry.  During  the  war,  prices  of  canned 
peas  were  high  because  consumers  wanted  more  peas  than  were  pro- 
duced. Page  5-6 

Supplying  the  right  amount  of  peas  to  consumers  involves  the 

payment  of  fair,  proportionate  prices  to  farmers,  to  manufacturers 
of  containers  and  to  pea  canning  factories  for  their  mutual  efforts 
in  the  industry.  Pages  6-8 

The  establishment  of  new  canning  factories  depends  upon  the  level 
of  prices  which  consumers  will  pay  for  the  total  annual  pack  of 
peas.  While  these  prices  continued  high,  it  suggested  a need  for 
more  factories.  Now  that  the  war  is  over  and  prices  of  peas  have 
taken  a disastrous  tumble,  those  who  plan  new  factories  must  con- 
sider whether  a larger  total  supply  of  canned  peas  can  be  sold  at 
remunerative  prices.  Page  8 

Definite  and  dependable  facts  about  costs  and  profits  of  growing 
and  canning  peas  will  increase  demand  and  enlarge  the  industry. 

When  consumers  misunderstand  basic  production  costs  the  tendency 
is  to  buy  less  than  they  otherwise  would.  Page  9 

The  production  and  canning  of  fancy  or  high  quality  peas  re- 
quires skill  in  every  detail.  This  necessarily  demands  the  services 
of  experts.  Competition  and  demand  for  this  grade  of  services  com- 
pels payment  of  good  wages  and  salaries.  Pages  9—13 

Pea  canning  is  exceptionally  hazardous.  The  ravages  of  disease 
and  the  effect  of  excessive  rain  or  of  unusually  dry  weather  seri- 
ously affects  either  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  the  green  peas  and 
thereby  influences  the  character  and  cost  of  the  pack.  Pages  13—16 

The  canning  factory  dollar  was  divided  among  several  groups 
whose  mutual  efforts  are  essential  to  the  making  of  a finished  prod- 
uct for  which  consumers  will  pay.  On  the  basis  of  one  can  No.  2 
size,  3.05  cents  were  paid  for  peas,  3.22  cents  for  cans  and  boxes, 
3.94  cents  for  maintaining  and  operating  the  factory,  and  1.32  cents 
remained  as  the  canner’s  profits.  Pages  16-20 

Pea  canning,  like  farming,  is  a seasonal  industry  with  a slow  turn- 
over. Competition  makes  a relatively  wide  margin  of  profit  on  each 
turnover  necessary  for  both.  Page  19 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


Theodore  Macklin 

WISCONSIN  leads  the  United  States  in  pea  canning.  To 
maintain  this  leadership  it  is  important  for  both  farm- 
ers and  pea  canners  to  he  properly  informed  con- 
cerning costs,  profits  and  other  conditions  throughout  the  in- 
dustry. Wisconsin’s  1919  pack  of  peas  amounted  to  4,317,000 
cases  or  over  103,600,000  cans.  This  was  almost  one  can  for 
every  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  United  States.  Facts  from 
22  factories  out  of  the  88  plants  in  operation  during  1919  in- 
dicate that  consumers  cannot  consider  canned  peas  a farm 
product  only.  The  average  cost  of  canning  over  30,000,000 
cans  of  peas  was  10.21  cents  each.  This  was  distributed  among 
farmers,  can  manufacturers,  makers  of  box  parts,  and  others 
whose  services  were  required  in  making  the  finished  product 
from  the  raw  materials. 

Factories  sold  their  canned  peas  at  an  average  price  of  $2.77 
per  case  containing  two  dozen  No.  2 cans.  Out  of  the  11.53 
cents  received  for  each  can  of  peas,  the  farmer  or  grower  of 
green  peas  was  paid  3.04  cents,  cans  cost  2.62  cents,  boxes  .6 
cents,  all  other  factory  and  selling  expenses  amounted  to  3.94 
cents,  and  profits  of  factories  before  income  taxes  were  de- 
ducted, averaged  1.32  cents.1  That  containers — the  cans  and 
boxes  together — cost  3.22  cents,;  or  more  than  the  green  peas  is 
a significant  fact  that  both  consumers  and  farmers  have  not 
fully  realized  before.  Canned  peas  are  as  much  a product  of 
mines  and  forests  as  they  are  of  farms.  If  consumers  through- 
out the  United  States  are  to  enjoy  Wisconsin  peas  during  every 
season  of  the  year  they  must  pay  for  cans  and  boxes  as  well  as 
for  the  green  peas.  All  other  necessary  costs  must  also  be  met 
by  consumers  if  factories  are  to  continue  packing  peas. 


1 This  profit  is  in  terms  of  cents  per  can  sold  and  not  on  capital  stock.  Some 
plants  make  money  on  capital  When  others  do  not.  Hence  per  cent  of  capital  may 
mean  little  when  per  cent  of  sales  means  much. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


A Sixteen  Million  Dollar  Industry 

About  56,672  acres  were  devoted  to  the  growing  of  peas  for 
canning  in  Wisconsin  in  1919  according  to  figures  from  pea 
canning  factories.2  Four-fifths  of  this  land  was  owned  and  cul- 


FIG.  1.— LOCATION  OF  WISCONSIN  PEA  CANNING  FACTORIES 

Each  dot  is  a factory.  All  together  these  plants  produce  one-half  of  the  canned  peas 
of  the  United  States  annually. 


tivated  by  farmers;  one-fifth  was  owned  and  cultivated  by  pea 
canning  companies.  At  a valuation  of  $200  per  acre,  farmers 


2 All  of  the  factories  canning  peas  in  Wisconsin  -were  invited  by  the  Wisconsin 
Agricultural  Experiment  station  to  answer  questionaires  and  to  submit  copies  of  their 
operating  statements  showing  complete  cost  analyses  for  their  business.  Only  22 
plants  out  of  88  factories  in  operation  during  1919  submitted  answers  and  cost  figures. 


Cost  op  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


5 


had  $9,099,200  worth  of  land  devoted  to  the  growing  of  peas, 
while  the  canning  companies  had  $2,235,200  worth  of  land  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  total  paid-up  capital  of  the  88  factories, 
which  includes  their  land  just  mentioned,  is  estimated  at  $7,- 
026,976  based  on  the  average  of  $79,852  for  19  factories  report- 
ing. Beside  their  fixed  capital,  canners  are  heavy  borrowers 
of  short  time  loan  money  to  finance  their  business.  Probably 
not  less  than  $16,126,176  worth  of  land,  buildings,  and  equip- 
ment— representing  permanent  investment — was  utilized  in 
producing  the  1919  output  of  Wisconsin  canned  peas  while 
some  millions  of  dollars  of  short  time  loans  were  also  utilized. 
The  factory  value  of  the  4,317,000  cases  was  approximately 
$12,000,000  or  $2.77  a case.  Pea  canning  from  the  standpoint 
of  both  farmers  and  factory  managements  is,  therefore,  one  of 
the  important  industries  of  the  state. 

Demands  of  Consumers  Stimulated  Pea  Canning 

During  ten  years,  from  1910  to  1919,  the  output  of  canned 
peas  for  the  United  States  doubled  while  Wisconsin’s  output 
increased  four  times.  This  rapid  growth  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  consumers  wanted  peas  and  paid  prices  high  enough  to 
stimulate  both  the  establishment  of  new  canning  factories  and 
the  growing  of  increased  acreages  of  peas  by  Wisconsin  farm- 
ers. The  value  of  canned  peas  increased  from  $1.97  to  $2.88  a 
case  according  to  facts  covering  the  operations  of  six  plants  for 
five  years.  It  was  in  response  to  these  increased  prices  that 
new  pea  canning  factories  were  started  and  that  farmers  were 
paid  more  for  their  green  peas. 


Table  I.— Time  of  Establishment  of  21  Pea  Canning  Plants 


Period 

Number 

Per  cent 

1900  to  1904 

4 

19 

1905  to  1909 

2 

10 

1910  to  1914^ 

8 

38 

1915  to  1919 

7 

33 

Total 

21 

100 

Out  of  the  21  canning  factories  reporting  their  date  of  com- 
mencing business,  15  started  operations  since  1910  and  only  six 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


previously.  (See  Table  I).  One-third  of  the  plants  were  es- 
tablished between  1915  and  1919.  In  fact,  four  companies 
operated  for  their  first  season  in  1919.  In  no  other  year  were 
more  than  two  new  plants  opened  for  business.  The  growing 
demand  for  canned  peas  was  therefore  stimulating  more  and 
more  factories  to  engage  in  the  business  of  providing  a more 
nearly  adequate  supply  of  this  food  product  for  the  buying 
public. 

Wisconsin  farmers  contributed  to  the  growth  of  the  industry 
by  cultivating  larger  acreages  of  peas  in  response  to  higher 
prices  for  the  green  product.  Out  of  22  plants  only  six  gave 
complete  information  covering  a five-year  period.  Their  facts 
' — shown  in  Table  II — indicate  that  farmers  increased  their 
acreages  of  peas  in  response  to  the  rising  prices  paid  by  the 
canning  companies.  That  the  output  of  peas  did  not  neces- 
sarily correspond  to  the  increased  acreage  grown  emphasizes 
variable  yield  as  one  of  the  peculiar  hazards  of  the  pea  indus- 
try. In  1918,  farmers  supplying  these  six  factories  were  fortu- 
nate in  having  an  unusually  high  yield  averaging  2,448  pounds 
per  acre.  In  1919  the  yield  from  a greater  acreage  was  only 
1,709  pounds  per  acre. 


Table  II. — Pea  Acreage  Increased  With  Rising  Prices1 


Year 

Average 
prices  per 
pound  paid 
farmers  for 
green  peas 

Acreage 
of  peas 
grown  by 
farmers 

Pounds 
of  peas 
produced 
by 

farmers 

Per  cent  j 
increase 
in  price 
over  1915 

Per  cent 
increase 
on  acreage 
over  1915 

Per  cent 
increase 
in  peas 
over  1915 

1915. . . . 

Cents 

2.023 

3,978 

4,096 

8,408,751 

8,056,220 

1916.... 

2.004 

.92 

2.8 

4.22 

1917.... 

2.086 

4,316 

8,441,588 

3.1 

8.4 

.4 

1918.... 

2.770 

4,736 

11,597,057 

36.9 

19.0 

37.9 

1919.... 

8.268 

5,087 

8,695,422 

61.5 

27.7 

3.4 

Av 

2.460 

4,443 

9,039,807 

21.6 

11.6 

7.5 

1 Facts  shown  are  the  totals  or  averages  from  six  plants  which  operated  during  all 
of  the  five  years— 1915  to  1919. 

^Decrease.  * 


Relation  of  Prices  to  Quantity  of  Peas 

In  spite  of  the  rapidly  increasing  number  of  new  canning 
plants  and  the  increased  acreages  grown  by  farmers,  not  enough 
peas  were  canned  to  satisfjr  all  consumers.  When  the  demand 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


7 


for  a product  cannot  be  met,  prices  are  high  because  people  who 
have  the  means  bid  prices  high  enough  to  assure  themselves  a 
supply  of  what  they  want.  Precisely  this  has  happened  to 
peas.  Prices  rose  and  thereby  stimulated  higher  production. 
Tt  should  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  the  production  of 
canned  peas  requires  three  essentials.  Farmers  must  be  in- 
duced to  grow  green  peas;  manufacturers  of  cans  and  boxes 
must  be  stimulated  to  provide  containers ; and  canning  factories 
must  be  built  and  operated.  In  the  absence  of  any  one  of  these 


FIG.  2.— AT  THE  VINING  STATION. 

Here  farmers  dispose  of  their  peas  and  machinery  commences  the  complicated  work 
of  preparing  and  canning. 


conditions  no  important  quantity  of  peas  can  be  placed  on  the 
markets  of  the  country.  To  induce  each  one  of  these  groups  to 
do  its  part  fully  and  efficiently  necessitates  that  farmers,  can 
and  box  manufacturers,  and  canning  companies  each  receive  a 
stimulating  share  of  the  factory  selling  value  of  the  finished 
goods.  If  an  insufficient  price  is  paid  by  the  canning  company 
for  green  peas,  farmers  will  produce  less  than  enough  to  meet 
the  needs  of  consumers.  If  too  much  is  paid,  the  profits  of  can- 
ning companies  will  be  so  low  that  new  factories  will  not  be 
built  and  the  output  of  this  food  will  continue  to  be  less  than 
the  amount  desired  by  consumers. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


Output  Depends  Upon  Number  op  Factories 

If  the  demands  of  consumers  are  to  be  satisfied,  both  pro- 
ducers and  finishers  of  raw  material  should  receive  fair  shares 
of  the  value  of  the  finished  product.  Under  present  conditions, 
canning  factories  can  economically  put  up  the  peas  from  lim- 
ited acreages  only.  While  the  number  of  acres  of  peas  grown 
per  canning  plant  varied  from  225  to  1,631  in  Wisconsin,  the 
average  acreage  for  18  concerns  was  644  acres  in  1919.  An 
average  of  517  acres  per  factory  were  cultivated  by  farmers, 
while  the  companies  themselves  directed  the  cultivation  of  an 
average  of  127  acres  per  factory.  Because  canning  factories  are 
able  to  can  the  peas  from  a limited  acreage  only,  any  greatly 
increased  output  of  canned  peas  may  be  brought  about  only  by 
establishing  new  canning  factories  and  stimulating  new  groups 
of  farmers  to  supply  them  with  green  produce. 

Profit  Stimulates  Establishment  of  Pea  Canneries 

During  the  war,  consumers  demanded  ever  increasing  quan- 
tities of  canned  peas  and  paid  remunerative  prices  for  them. 
In  response  to  the  rising  prices  for  green  peas,  farmers  produced 
enough  raw  material  to  bring  Wisconsin  to  first  place  as  a pea 
growing  state.  Moreover,  the  profits  of  canning  companies  were 
sufficiently  high  to  cause  the  establishment  of  many  new  plants 
some  of  which  were  built  and  operated  by  farmers  cooperatively. 
Any  one  could  enter  the  pea  canning  business,  whether  private 
or  cooperative,  and  make  good  profits.  This  has  been  the  di- 
rect result  of  a strong  consumer  demand  which  gave  prices  that 
were  stimulating  alike  to  canning  companies,  to  manufacturers 
of  cans  and  boxes,  and  to  farmers.  So  long  as  these  same  stimu- 
lating conditions  persisted  it  was  almost  certain  that  new  plants 
would  be  started  to  provide  new  groups  of  farmers  with  a means 
of  supplying  consumers  with  greater  quantities  of  peas.  When 
these  stimulating  conditions  cease,  all  concerned  with  pea  can- 
ning may  well  examine  the  cause  and  find  whether  consumers 
are  unwilling  to  pay  remunerative  prices  to  obtain  either  the 
same  or  an  increasing  supply.  If  either  the  same  or  a reduced 
supply  is  needed,  it  is  also  certain  that  new  factories  no  longer 
will  be  desirable.  Such  a situation  might  readily  develop  by  a 
fall  in  profits  due  to  competition  of  pea  canneries  to  dispose  of 
any  supply  produced  in  excess  of  what  consumers  need. 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


9 


Misunderstanding  of  Facts  Injures  Market 

Because  the  costs  of  canning  peas  involve  practically  equal 
payments  to  farmers,  to  can  and  box  manufacturers,  and  to  pea 
canning  concerns,  it  is  economically  desirable  that  these  costs 
should  be  more  widely  known.  Few  persons  realize  that  the 
cost  of  cans  and  boxes  exceeds  the  value  of  the  canned  peas  they 
contain.  Therefore,  consumers  are  misled  by  the  popular  idea 


NUMBER 
NO.  2 CANS 
PUT  UP 
275,000 


200,000 


100,000 


J 


20 


NUMBER  OF  PLANTS 


FIG.  3.— HOW  PEA  CANNING  FACTORIES  VARY  IN  SIZE. 

The  lengths  of  the  black  bars  indicate!  the  relative  output  per  factory  in  number  of 
cases  of  No.  2 cans.  They  ranged  from  less  than  40,000  cases  to  almost  275,000 
cases. 


that  the  only  justifiable  element  of  cost  in  canned  peas  is  the 
peas  themselves.  Manifestly,  it  injures  the  market  if  buyers 
consider  the  product  worth  only  three  cents  simply  because 
farmers  received  that  amount.  If  consumers  know  that  the  fin- 
ished product  actually  costs  10.21  cents — made  up  of  many 
items  of  expense  beside  what  farmers  are  paid, — this  informa- 
tion tends  to  convince  the  consumer  that  he  is  not  overcharged. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


This  knowledge  leads  to  greater  demand.  Such  information  is 
helpful  to  farmers  also  because  it  explains  some  of  the  unknown 
facts  about  market  outlets.  Green  peas  could  not  be  produced 


Table  HI. — Canning  Factory  Total  Costs  by  Sizes  of  Plant 


Output  in  number 
of  doz.  of  cans  of 
No.  2 size 

Number 

°f 

factories 

Average 
output  per 
plant  in 
doz.  of 
No.  2 cans 

Average 
factory 
cost  per 
doz.  No.  2 
cans 

Average 
i general  and 
selling  cost 
per  doz. 
No.  2 cans 

Average 
total  of 
all  costs 
per  doz. 
No.  2 cans 

Under  60,000 

2 

37,874 

$1,063 

$.116 

$1,179 

60,000  to  80, 000 

6 

74,162 

1.144 

.170 

1.314 

80,000  to  100, 000 

2 

90,347 

1.069 

.168 

1.237 

100,000  to  120, 000 

5 

112,056 

.973 

.215 

1.188 

120,000  to  140,000 j 

3 

129,759 

1.053 

.186 

1.239 

140,000  and  over ; 

3 

220,849 

1.066 

.143 

1.209 

Average  of  21  factories. 

110.186 

1.055 

.176 

1 231 

in  present  quantities  were  it  not  for  the  hermetically  sealed  can 
and  for  canning  plants  and  machinery  that  minimize  the  ex- 
pense of  processing  in  large  amounts. 

Many  Influences  Affect  Canning 

Peas  are  canned  in  factories  which  vary  greatly  not  only  in 
size,  hut  also  in  the  ability  and  efficiency  of  their  management. 
As  a consequence,  some  factories  put  up  and  dispose  of  their 
products  at  much  greater  expense  than  do  the  more  efficient 
concerns.  Furthermore,  the  variation  in  yield  and  quality  of 
green  peas  decidedly  influences  the  cost  and  value  of  the  annual 
pack.  To  view  costs  from  any  one  angle  to  the  exclusion  ol 
others  equally  important,  is  to  invite  injury  to  an  industry  in 
which  Wisconsin  farmers  and  canners  have  taken  the  leader- 
ship. Each  angle  of  the  industry  must  be  viewed  in  the  light 
of  facts  as  they  appear  in  practice. 

Size  of  Factory  Depends  Upon  Acreage  and  Yield 

The  cost  of  canning  is  apparently  the  same,  whether  canning 
factories  are  large  or  small,  provided  they  are  operated  at  ca- 
pacity and  are  efficiently  managed.  Figures  grouped  according 
to  sizes  of  plants  (shown  in  Table  III)  indicate  this  clearly. 
The  expediency  of  canning  peas  in  large  or  small  plants  must, 
therefore,  hinge  largely  upon  the  acreage  of  peas  likely  to  be 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


11 


grown  annually  during  the  life  of  the  factory  and  its  equip- 
ment. That  16  out  of  21  factories  were  equipped  as  two  line 3 
plants,  while  the  majority  of  the  plants  canned  peas  from  acre- 
ages varying  from  400  to  800  acres— averaging  644  acres — sug- 
gests an  important  relation.  One  reason  why  canning  costs 
differ  is  because  factories  cannot  he  operated  efficiently  and  at 
full  capacity  always.  At  times,  new  acreage  may  he  added  to 
utilize  additional  machinery  fully  and  so  a factory  may  be  en- 
larged. However,  after  additional  lines  are  installed  any  re- 
duction in  acreage  necessarily  means  that  one  or  more  lines  are 
likely  not  to  be  operated  at  full  capacity.  Hence  in  some  cases, 
larger  plants  actually  may  have  greater  operating  expense  than 
smaller  plants.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  a canning  fac- 
tory should  be  adapted  to  efficient  canning  of  the  average  an- 
nual yield  of  peas. 

Pea  Canning  Factories  Expensive 

Pea  canning  is  a costly  undertaking  because  peas  must  be 
picked  or  hulled,  cleaned,  graded,  placed  in  cans,  and  processed. 
These  operations  must  be  performed  either  by  hand  or  by 
costly  machinery.  To  save  labor,  as  well  as  to  guarantee  that 
the  work  will  be  done, . requires  expensive  machinery.  But  in 
spite  of  high  expenditure  for  machinery  the  work  is  thereby 
done  at  less  cost  than  by  the  use  of  hand  labor.  For  example, 
viners  now  do  the  work  which  formerly  required  200  women. 
No  factory  reported  less  than  three  viners  and  many  plants  had 


Table  IV. — Authorized  and  Paid-up  Capital  of  Pea  Canneries 


Amount  of  capital 
authorized 

Number 

of 

companies 

Total 

authorized 

capital 

Total 

paid-up 

capital 

Average 

authorized 

capital 

Average 

paid-up 

capital 

$25,000  to  850,000 

5 

$180,000 

$169, 000 

$36,000 

$33,800 

$50,000  to  $75,000 

4 

222.800 

212,600 

55,700 

52,520 

875,000  to  $100,000.. 

3 

240,000 

167,200 

80,000 

55,738 

$100,000  to  $125, 000 

5 

520,000 

482,500 

104,000 

96,500 

$125,000  and  over 

2 

700,000 

485,900 

350,000 

242,950 

Total 

19 

$1,862,800 

$1,517,200 

98,042 

79,852 

3 The  number  of  lines  refers  to  the  number  of  units  of  machinery  installed  for 

canning  peas. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


seven  or  eight.  The  average  was  10  viners  per  factory.  That 
would  mean  employing  2000  women  to  do  only  a fraction  of  the 
work  which  must  be  done  before  green  peas  are  canned.  There- 
fore labor  as  well  as  space  is  economized  by  utilizing  machinery 
even  though  it  is  expensive.  More  important  still,  the  machine 
guarantees  that  this  work  will  be  done  for  which  laborers  could 
not  be  secured  in  sufficient  numbers. 

Few  persons  realize  that  a pea  canning  factory  calls  for  a 
paid-up  investment  varying  anywhere  from  $100  to  $200  or 
more  per  acre  of  peas  grown.  In  Table  IV  both  the  authorized 


r 


FIG.  4.— ONE  OF  WISCONSIN’S  PEA  CANNING  FACTORIES'. 

Plants  of  this  kind  represent  on  an  average  an  investment  of  $125  for  every  acre  of 
peas  grown  for  canning. 


and  paid-up  capital  of  19  concerns  are  shown  according  to  size 
groups.  The  average  paid-up  capital  of  almost  $80,000  per 
plant,  when  compared  to  an  average  of  644  acres  of  peas  grown 
and  canned,  indicates  that  pea  canning  factories  cost  $125  per 
acre  of  peas. 

Pea  Canning  Is  Intricate  Process 

Since  the  delicate,  fresh  flavor  of  canned  peas  makes  them  de- 
sired by  consumers  and  because  this  quality  is  easily  destroyed — 
either  by  delayed  or  careless  harvesting,  or  by  unskillful  hand- 
ling and  processing  in  the  canning  factory — expert  management 
is  essential.  The  expense  of  employing  expert  management, 
combined  with  a heavy  investment  and  the  fact  that  the  plant 
can  be  operated  for  a short  time  only  and  at  great  speed,  make 
relatively  heavy  costs  unavoidable.  That  boxes,  cans  and  condi- 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


13 


ments  represent  raw  materials  which  cost  far  more  than  the 
green  peas  themselves  further  suggests  that  canning  is  a compli- 
cated form  of  manufacturing.  The  managers  of  canning  con- 
cerns, therefore,  whether  they  be  employed  by  private  or  by  co- 
operatively owned  and  operated  companies,  are  obtainable  only 
by  paying  good  salaries  and  commissions.  Necessarily,  this 
contributes  to  a relatively  large  overhead  expense. 


Pea  Canning  Unusually  Hazardous 

The  principal  hazards  of  the  pea  industry  are  due  to  the  ex- 
treme fluctuations  in  quantity  and  quality  of  green  peas  pro- 
duced annually,  and  in  the  difficulty  of  properly  processing  the 
peas.  The  supply  of  green  peas  to  be  canned  depends  partly 
on  the  acreage  and  partly  upon  the  yield  per  acre.  While  the 
acreage  might  be  controlled,  it  is  impossible  to  overcome  weather 
conditions  which  cause  high  or  low  yield  and  good  or  poor  qual- 
ity— all  of  which  so  vitally  affect  the  cost  and  value  of  the  an- 
nual pack.  Among  the  principal  causes  of  low  yield  and  poor 
quality  are  disease  ravages,  excessive  rain,  and  shortage  of  moist- 
ure due  to  dry  growing  season. 


Table  Y. — Fluctuation  in  Average  Yield  of  Peas  and  Pack  for 
Stx  Canning  Plants 


Year 

Average 
number 
acres 
of  peas 

Average 
pounds 
of  peas 
per  acre 

Average 
number 
cases  of 
peas 
packed 

Per  cent 
changes  in 
acreage 
compared 
to  1915 

Per  cent 
changes 
in  yield 
compared 
to  1915 

Per  cent 
changes 
in  pack 
compared 
to  1915 

Per  cent 
changes 
in  net 
profit 
compared 
to  1915 

1315.... 

663 

2,114 

75,531 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

1916.... 

682 

1,967 

65,242 

102.8 

93.0 

86.4 

78.4 

1917.... 

719 

1,956 

74,983 

108.4 

92.5 

99.3 

109.8 

1918.... 

789 

2,448 

101,896 

119.0 

115.8 

134.9 

98.0 

1919.... 

848 

1,709 

77,153 

127.7 

80.8 

102.1 

51.0 

Av.  for 
5 years 

740 

2,035 

78,961 

111.6 

96.3 

104.5 

80.4 

Some  idea  of  the  variation's  occurring  in  Wisconsin  factories 
may  be  gained  from  data  in  Table  V.  These  figures  indicate 
that  while  the  acreage  of  peas  grown  has  steadily  increased,  the 
yield  per  acre  fluctuated  violently  from  2,448  pounds  per  acre 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


to  only  1,709  pounds.  Moreover,  while  the  very  low  yield  of 
1919  increased  canning  costs  unduly  and  reduced  profits  to  lit- 
tle more  than  one-half  of  what  they  had  been  in  1918  and  1915 ; 
profits  in  1917  were  the  highest  in  spite  of  a low  yield  because 
a greater  pack  was  fortunately  obtained.  An  unusual  demand 
also  gave  prices  which  were  above  normal  and  this  increased 
profits  greatly. 


Table  VI. — Fluctuation  in  Production  of  Canned  Peas 


Year 

Total  cases 
ol  peas 
| packed  in 
United  States 

Cases  of  peas 
packed  in 
Wisconsin 

Per  cent 
variation  of 
U.  S.  supply 
based  on 
average1 

Per  cent 
variation  of 
Wis.  supply 
based  on 
average2 

Per  cent 
changes  in 
Wis.  output 
compared 
to  1908 

1908  

1909  

1910  

1911  

1912  

1913  

1914  

1915  

1916  

1917  

1918  

1919  

5.577.000 

5.028.000 

4.347.000 

4.532.000 

7.037.000 

8.770.000 

8.847.000 

9.272.000 

6.686.000 

9.829.000 
11,063,156 

8.685.000 

2,200,000 

1.878.000 

1.086.000 

1.520.000 

2.658.000 

3.348.000 

3.555.000 

3.469.000 

2.763.000 

3.569.000 
4,519,934 

4.317.000 

74.6 

67.2 

58.2 

60.6 
94.1 

117.3 

118.4 
124.7 

89.8 

131.5 
148.0 
116.2 

75.7 

64.7 

37.3 

52.3 

91.4 

115.1 

122.2 
119.3 

94.1 

122.7 

155.8 
148.5 

100.0 

85.3 

49.3 
69.9 

102.8 

152.8 

161.5 
15?. 6 

125.5 
162.2 
205.4 
196.2 

Total  12 

years 

89,673.156 

34,882,934 

Average  12 

years 

7,472,156  1 

2,906,911 

100.0 

100.0 

132.1 

^Average  pack  in  United  States  1908  to  1919. 
2 Average  pack  in  Wisconsin  1908  to  1919. 


While  Wisconsin  produced  one-half  of  the  canned  peas  of  the 
country  in  1919,  this  leading  position  does  not  prevent  fluct- 
uation in  the  annual  supply  of  peas  as  Table  VI  indicates.  Less 
than  half  as  many  peas  were  canned  in  Wisconsin  in  1910  as  in 
1908  and  the  country’s  total  pack  also  dropped  off  seriously  at 
the  same  time.  This  undoubtedly  was  due  not  to  inability  to 
grow  the  raw  material  but  to  the  fact  that  consumers  would  not 
purchase  such  large  quantities  at  remunerative  prices.  Con- 
sideration of  the  facts  of  the  supply  and  demand  for  canned 
peas  indicates  that  it  is  a most  hazardous  undertaking.  Since 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


15 


FIG.  5.— ANNUAL  AVERAGE  VARIATIONS  FOR  SIX  FACTORIES!. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


neither  yield,  quality,  nor  demand  are  controllable  or  stable,  the 
prospect  of  both  remunerative  prices  and  attractive  profits  is  a 
matter  of  chance  far  more  than  in  the  case  of  farm  commodities 
such  as  livestock,  wheat,  and  dairy  products,  for  which  demand 
is  more  definite  and  constant. 

Cost  of  Canning  Peas 

Pea  canning  costs  vary  from  year  to  year  as  well  as  for  dif- 
ferent factories  during  the  same  year.  The  average  costs  for 
1919,  together  with  the  highest  and  lowest  expenses,  are  shown 
in  Table  VII.  The  differences  in  expenditure  for  any  single 
item  of  expense  as  shown  in  this  table  are  more  than  enough  to 


Table  VII.— Range  of  Pea  Canning  Factory  Costs — 19191 


Item  of  expense 

Average 
cost  per 
doz.  cans 

Highest 
cost  per 
doz.  cans 

Lowest 
cost  per 
doz.  cans 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Green  peas2 

36.52 

42.10 

26.80 

Cans 

31.37 

35.70 

28.40 

Direct  labor 

12.02 

21.72 

6.45 

Factory  overhead 

11.87 

24.10 

5.81 

Boxes 

7.23 

9.00 

4.70 

Depreciation3 

3.61 

6.90 

1.64 

Labels 

1.99 

3.15 

.90 

Condiments 

1.60 

3.12 

.50 

Interest  on  borrowings4 

1.55 

3.19 

.05 

General  overhead 

7.81 

20.80 

3.06 

9elling  expense 

6.98 

10.40 

4.10 

Total  cost 

122.55 

140.70 

106.00 

Net  profit6 

15.91 

Selling  price 

138.46 

1 Compiled  from  data  submitted  by  22  Wisconsin  pea  canning  plants  for  1919. 

2 The  extreme  variation  in  cost  of  green  peas  is  due  to  a number  of  conditions 
chief  of  which  are  (1 ) the  higher  price  paid  for  highest  grade  peas  and  the  low  price 
paid  for  poor  peas,  (2)  the  fact  that  some  companies  grew  large  acreages  of  peas 
which  were  charged  up  at  lower  prices  than  were  paid  to  farmers  or  visa  versa. 

3 Depreciation  on  building  and  machinery. 

4 Money  required  for  short  time  to  finance  canning  operation. 

5 Net  profit  before  deduction  of  income  taxes. 

mean  profit  or  loss  for  any  company.  The  fact  that  a concern 
paying  a high  price  for  cans  paid  a lower  price  for  peas,  or  op- 
erated with  less  overhead  or  with  other  smaller  expense,  en- 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


17 


abled  it  to  keep  the  total  costs  at  a figure  varying  from  $1.06 
to  $1.41  per  dozen  cans,  which  sold  for  an  average  price  of 
$1.3814  per  dozen.  That  the  average  cost  was  $1.22%  while 
the  average  price  was  $1.38%  resulted  in  profits  for  the  can- 
ners  averaging  15.9  cents  per  dozen  cans. 

What  Becomes  of  the  Canning  Factory’s  Dollar 

Few  persons  realize  that  pea  canning  is  such  an  intricate  and 
expensive  process.  Table  VIII  shows  the  average  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a finished  can  of  No.  2 size.  In  this  size  of  can  are  con- 
tained about  14  ounces  of  peas  and  7 ounces  of  liquor.  This  14 


Table  VIII.  -Factory  Costs  on  30,  138,  336  Cans  of  Peas  No.  2 Size1 


Item  of  expense 

Average 
cost  per 
No.  2 can 

Per  cent 
of  total 
cost 

Per  cent 
of  selling 
price 

Green  peas 

Cents 

3.04 

29.8 

26.4 

2.62 

25.6 

22.7 

Direct  labor 

1.00 

9.9 

8.7 

Factory  overhead 

.99^ 

9.8 

8.6 

Boxes 

.60 

5.9 

5.2 

Depreciation  2 

.30 

2.9 

2.6 

Labels 

.17 

1.6 

1.5 

Condiments 

.13 

1.2 

1.1 

Interest  on  borrowings 3 

.13 

1.2 

1.1 

General  overhead 

.65 

6.4 

5.6 

Selling  expense 

.58 

5,7 

5.0 

Total  cost 

10.21 

100.0 

Net  profit4 

1.32 

11.5 

Selling  price 

11.53 

100.0 

1 Compiled  from  facts  submitted  by  22  Wisconsin  pea  canning-  plants. 

2 Depreciation  on  buildings  and  machinery. 

3 Pea  canners  are  obliged  to  borrow  money  to  finance  their  purchase  of  peas,  sup  - 
plies, and  various  other  expenditures  during  the  flush  producing  season  before 
money  is  recovered  for  the  finished  product. 

4 Net  profit  before  income  taxes  are  deducted. 

ounces  of  green  peas  cost  factories  on  an  average  3.05  cents  or 
29.8  per  cent  of  their  total  costs.  The  expenditure  for  cans 
amounted  to  almost  as  much  as  that  for  the  peas,  while  cans  and 
boxes  combined  actually  cost  3.22  cents  or  more  than  the  peas. 
More  than  three-fifths  of  the  cost  of  canning  peas  or  61.3  per 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


Placing  in  holder. 


cent,  therefore,  represented 
ra^material  and  containers. 
The  remaining  expenses 
amounting  to  3.94  cents  or 
38.7  per  cent  of  the  total  cost 
as  shown  in  Table  VIII,  were 
for  operating  and  maintain- 
ing the  factories  including 
warehouse  facilities,  manage- 
ment, and  selling  arrange- 
ments. 

As  a result  of  consumer  de- 
mand and  the  various  costs  of 
distributing  peas,  canning 
factories  received  an  average 
price  of  11.53  cents  per  No.  2 
can  of  peas.  Since  the  total 
cost  amounted  to  10.21  cents 
per  can,  company  profits  av- 
eraged 1.32  cents  on  each  can. 
It  should  be  emphasized  that 
the  profit  as  herein  referred 
to  means  only  the  amount  of 
profit  per  can  of  peas.  It 
has  no  direct  reference  to 
rate  of  profit  earned  on  capi- 
tal stock.  Furthermore,  var- 
ious items  such  as  income 
taxes  were  not  deducted 
from  net  profit  as  here  shown 
because  they  were  so  var- 
iable. 

It  should  be  emphasized  in 
any  comparison  of  the  profits 
of  pea  canning  companies 
with  profits  of  other  enter- 
prises that  the  money  in- 
vested is  turned  over  but 
once  during  a year.  In  this 
respect,  pea  canning  concerns 
are  confronted  with  problems 


Cookers. 


FIG.  6.— A FEW  STEPS  IN  CANNING  PEAS. 


Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas 


19 


similar  to  those  met  by  farmers.  With  both  farmers  and  pea 
canning  factories,  losses  cannot  be  overcome  so  readily  as  in 
other  work  where  the  turnover  varies  from  five  to  thirty  times 
annually.  The  further  fact  that  canning  plants  must  stand 
idle  from  40  to  48  weeks  out  of  the  year  because  peas  are  canned 
only  during  a period  of  4 to  8 weeks,  inevitably  means  a heavy 
risk  that  justifies  commensurate  pay.  Middlemen  and  produc- 
ers whose  turnover  is  rapid  are  more  able  to  make  up  for  any 
losses  during  the  same  year  than  are  those  with  only  one  turn- 
over. Obviously  the  margin  of  profit  tends  to  be  wider  in  cases 
of  slow  turnover  than  in  instances  where  turnover  is  rapid. 
Competition  leads  to  this  situation.  Were  the  profit  narrower, 
money  would  be  invested  in  other  industries  than  pea  canning 
and  neither  farmers  nor  consumers  would  be  benefited  by  mar- 
kets and  supplies. 

To  the  consumer  who  enjoys  eating  peas  it  must  be  a consola- 
tion to  know  that  factory  costs  per  can  actually  approximate 
10.21  cents  even  though  the  green  peas  cost  only  3.05  cents. 
Similarly,  the  farmer  must  appreciate  that  these  various  basic 
costs  must  be  met  in  some  way  or  other.  That  cooperative  pea 
canning  factories  had  to  meet  all  the  same  expenses  as  the  pri- 
vate factories  studied,  is  doubly  reassuring  to  both  consumers 
and  farmers.  Furthermore,  that  the  price  of  green  peas  in- 
creased 61.5  per  cent  while  the  factory  value  of  the  pack  in- 
creased 46.2  in  the  face  of  costs  that  rose  79.4  per  cent  during  a 
five-year  period,  means  that  conditions  in  the  industry  are  flexi- 
ble and  that  various  adjustments  are  being  worked  out  within 
it.  It  is  to  the  vital  interest  of  both  farmers  and  canning  com- 
panies to  have  markets  which  will  demand  peas  at  prices  on  a 
new  level  which  will  be  remunerative  alike  to  farmers,  to  can 
and  box  manufacturers  and  to  canning  companies.  Informa- 
tion which  assures  consumers  that  farmers  and  factories  are  do- 
ing their  utmost  to  improve  the  quality  and  to  turn  out  greater 
quantities  and  larger  proportions  of  high  grade  produce  will  in- 
crease demand.  Moreover,  if  consumers  become  convinced,  that 
canned  peas  justify  high  prices,  because  the  processes  of  grow- 
ing and  canning  them  are  expensive,  they  will  willingly  pay  ade- 
quate prices  for  what  they  want  rather  than  go  without  their 
accustomed  supply.  Future  progress  of  the  Wisconsin  pea 
canning  industry  will  be  guaranteed  by  tempering  the  various 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  327 


individual  interests  to  a program  which  emphasizes  giving  the 
consumer  quality  and  knowledge  of  costs,  and  of  providing  both 
farmers  and  canners  wi^th  an  equitable  division  of  the  value  of 
their  product  based  on  average  results  over  a period  of  years 
rather  than  for  short  periods  of  time. 


Canning  Enlarges  Markets 

Canning  highly  perishable  products  is  a boon  both  to 
consumers  and  to  farmers.  Consumers  now  enjoy  pre- 
served fruits  and  vegetables  throughout  the  year  largely 
because  of  it.  By  preserving  perishable  products  for  sale 
throughout  twelve  months,  compared  to  former  markets 
restricted  to  a few  weeks  or  months,  canning  enables  farm- 
ers profitably  to  produce  perishables  in  a vastly  greater 
quantity.  Canning  is  therefore  a necessary  marketing 
service. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Crops  for  basic  rotation  in  Wisconsin  are  corn,  small  grains  amL 
hay.  The  acreage  of  each  crop  is  readily  adjusted  in  any  rotation' 
system  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  farm.  Page  5 

Large  fields  are  desirable.  They  reduce  the  expense  of  fencing  and 
cultivating  and  also  permit  the  use  of  tractors.  Pages  7-8 

Fields  should  be  regular.  It  is  desirable  to  have  fields  one-half 
longer  than  they  are  wide.  Plowing,  planting,  cultivating,  and  har- 
vesting are  more  economically  handled  with  long  rows.  Page  8 

The  entrance  to  fields  should  be  near  the  buildings  whenever  pos- 
sible. This  saves  time  in  going  to  and  from  work.  Page  8 

Fields  should  be  worked  at  right  angles  to  the  natural  slope.  This 
means  that  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  slope  of  the  fields  carefully 
in  making  a revised  farm  plan.  Page  8 

Steps  in  farm  planning  are:  Determining  the  number  of  cultivated 

acres;  locating  the  hog  pasture  near  the  barn;  placing  the  fields  in 
the  pasture  rotation  so  that  they  will  be  readily  accessible  from  the 
barnyard.  Page  10 

A rotation  schedule  is  needed  to  show  what  crop  goes  into  each; 
field  yearly.  It  is  helpful  to  have  these  crops  numbered;  Pages  10-11 

The  rotation  schedule  can  be  readily  adjusted  to  meet  changing 
conditions.  Substitute  crops  may  be  used  so  as  to  permit  following 
out  the  schedule.  Page  12 

A study  of  typical  farms  aids  one  in  replanning  his  own.  Original 

and  reyised  plans  of  average  farms  offer  interesting  comparisons. 

Pages  14-28 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


D.  H.  Otis* 


The  field  plans  of  Wisconsin  farms  today  are  the  result  of  a 
gradual  process  of  fitting  the  changing  needs  of  a developing 
agriculture  to  local  conditions.  Because  they  are  the  product 
of  haphazard  growth  rather  than  of  definite  planning  these  ar- 
rangements are  often  inefficient. 

Replanning  them  for  the  purpose  of  saving  labor,  maintain- 
ing fertility,  and  increasing  production  is  therefore  worth  while. 
The  principles  of  effective  field  lay-out  are  not  difficult  to  fol- 
low as  the  actual  examples  of  successfully  replanned  farms  in- 
dicate. 


How  Faem  Plans  Developed 

Wisconsin  farms  have  developed  slowly.  Fields  have  been 
cleared  a little  at  a time.  Additions  have  been  made  by  pur- 
chase, or  parcels  have  been  sold  off.  The  one-crop  system  of 
sixty  years  ago  has  been  altered  by  the  addition  of  other  crops 
from  time  to  time  increasing  the  number  of  fields.  Crop  rota- 
tion has  arisen  naturally  from  the  need  for  using  different 
pieces  of  land  for  the  cultivated  crops,  small  grains,  and  mea- 
dows in  order  to  give  the  land  in  cultivated  crops  a rest. 
This  means  to  maintain  fertility,  or  productive  power,  as 
well  as  to  combat  more  successfully  the  increasing  numbers  of 
noxious  weeds  and  insect  pests. 

As  the  type  of  farming  in  each  region  has  become  more 
stable,  field  plans  filling  the  general  needs  of  each  type  have 
been  worked  out.  In  these  systems  original  field  lines  have  been 
rather  closely  followed  because  crops  were  rotated  on  the  basis 
of  what  each  particular  crop  required  rather  than  on  the  basis 
of  the  farm  as  a whole.  As  new  acres  were  broken  up  for  cul- 


* S.  TV.  Mendum,  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Economics,  assisted  in  pre- 
paring the  manuscript  for  publication. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


tivation  they  were  usually  handled  as  field  units,  each  with  a 
different  crop  each  year.  Therefore,  as  the  farm  developed  it 
had  many  separate  fields,  each  with  the  same  crop — three  or 
four  lots  of  com,  and  others  of  hay  and  small  grains — until  it 
looked  like  a patch-work  quilt. 

Small  irregular  fields  require  more  labor  than  do  large  regu- 
lar fields ; they  require  more  fence  when  livestock  is  kept ; there 
is  more  waste  around  the  edges,  to  say  nothing  of  the  land  used 
for  lanes  or  wagon  tracks ; and  the  time  spent  going  to  and  from 
fields  is  often  considerable. 

Choice  of  Crops 

Experience  has  probably  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  type  of 
farming  best  suited  to  the  region  in  which  the  farm  is  located. 
The  farmer  knows  what  crops  can  be  grown  successfully  on  his 
land,  how  they  are  affected  by  soil  and  climate  and  what  crops 
are  usually  most  profitable  under  ordinary  market  conditions. 
He  practices  rotation  in  a general  way  by  changing  fields  occa- 
sionally. If  he  has  livestock,  he  plans  his  crops  to  provide  for 
their  needs  either  with  or  without  buying  additional  concen- 
trates or  roughage.  Experience  has  also  shown  in  a general 
way  how  much  of  each  crop  he  can  grow  with  his  available  la- 
bor without  changing  the  size  of  the  farm.  Since  the  general 
farm  scheme  is  usually  well  settled,  the  principles  of  choice  of 
type  of  farming  need  not  be  discussed,  but  rather  the  replan- 
ning of  the  farm  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  type 
adopted. 

Relation  of  Crops  to  Livestock 

Adjusting  the  kinds  and  quantities  of  crops  to  support  the 
livestock  is  important.  Crop  production  in  itself  does  not  need 
to  be  discussed  here.  The  types  and  amounts  of  crops  produced 
are  more  or  less  dependent  on  circumstances  but  may  be  varied, 
within  reasonable  limits  depending  upon  weather  conditions, 
almost  at  will  in  any  season.  While  the  following  principles 
will  guide  in  planning  for  straight  cash  croj|  production,  the 
needs  of  livestock  farmers  are  most  prominei^ 

From  the  size  of  the  farm,  the  crops  most  successful  on  it  and 
their  average  yields,  the  amount  and  type  of  livestock  to  be  kept 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


5 


is  estimated.  Enough  stock  should  be  kept  to  consume  the  feed 
that  can  be  grown.  This  is,  of  course,  subject  to  many  varia- 
tions. If  the  farm  is  overstocked,  feed  must  be  purchased— 
usually  the  concentrates.  If  it  is  not  stocked  to  capacity 
some  grain  or  hay  may  be  sold.  The  feeding  plans  determine 
the  rotation  to  be  followed  and  the  farm  layout  depends  on  the 
rotation. 


Basic  Rotations 

Rotation  systems  for  Wisconsin  livestock  farms  are  planned 
on  corn,  small  grains,  and  clover  or  alfalfa,  with  or  without 
pasture.  The  “ clover”  or  simplest  rotation  is  corn,  oats,  and 
clover  in  three  fields  of  equal  size.  Corn  is  followed  by  oats  or 
other  small  grain  seeded  to  clover.  This  is  cut  for  hay  the  third 
year  and  the  clover  sod  is  turned  under  for  corn  again  the  next 
year,  repeating  the  order.  If  pasture  is  needed,  the  rotation  is 
lengthened  one  year  and  four  fields  are  used  instead  of  three, 
timothy  being  seeded  with  the  clover  and  held  over  a year. 

Because  of  the  greater  expense  of  establishing  alfalfa  and  on 
account  of  its  persistency,  rotations  including  it  are  usually 
planned  for  five  or  more  years  with  a like  number  of  fields. 
To  distinguish  it  from  others  based  on  clover  hay,  it  is  calied 
the  “alfalfa”  rotation.  All  the  rotations  mentioned  in  this 
bulletin  are  modifications  of  these  two.  They  are  given  below 
together  with  a rotation  adapted  to  the  special  needs  of  hogs. 


Table  1. — Basic  Rotations 


“Clover”  Rotation 

“Alfalfa”  Rotation 

Hog  Pasture  Rotation 

Crop  No. 

Crop 

Crop  No. 

Crop 

Crop.  No. 

Crop 

(1) 

Clover  and  tim- 
othy (hay) 

(1) 

Alfalfa 

(1) 

Clover  pasture 

(2) 

Pasture 

(2) 

Alfalfa 

(2) 

Corn 

(3) 

Corn 

(3) 

Alfalfa 

(3) 

Oats,  peas,  or 
rape 

(4) 

Grain  seeded  to 
clover  and  tim- 
othy 

(4) 

Corn 

(4) 

Grain  seeded  to 
clover 

(5) 

Grain  seeded 
to  alfalfa 

6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


The  Clover  Rotation 

The  clover  rotation  given  is  a four-year  one  providing 
pasture.  In  it  timothy  is  seeded  with  the  clover  in  the  small 
grains.  If  there  is  plenty  of  pasture  on  the  farm  without  this, 
the  pasture  field  may  be  cut  for  hay  (largely  timothy)  for 
horses,  or  the  rotation  may  be  reduced  to  three  years.  In  this 
case  three  fields  are  used  instead  of  four  and  the  timothy  is 
omitted  in  seeding  down.  If  more  corn  is  needed,  it  may  re- 
place pasture.  If  both  pasture  and  more  corn  are  needed  the 
number  of  fields  may  be  increased  to  five  and  corn  put  in  two 
fields.  Any  other  annual  crop  may  be  substituted  for  corn  in 
whole  or  in  part  on  the  “corn”  field. 

The  Alfalfa  Rotation 

The  usual  life  of  alfalfa  where  successful  in  Wisconsin  is  three 
or  four  years  before  it  winter  kills  or  is  choked  out  by  blue 
grass.  The  five  year  rotation  shown  provides  for  alfalfa  on  the 
same  field  three  years  before  being  plowed  under  for  corn.  If 
alfalfa  lasts  longer  with  a good  stand  it  may  be  desirable  to  in- 
crease the  rotation  to  six  or  more  years.  If  more  corn  were 
needed  this  would  also  be  true,  even  with  alfalfa  retained  only 
three  years.  If  three  fields  are  needed  for  corn  the  rotation 
may  be  increased  to  seven  years,  one-third  of  the  alfalfa  being 
turned  under  each  year  for  corn.  Sometimes  bluegrass  or 
noxious  weeds  cannot  be  subdued  in  the  one  year  devoted  to  a 
cultivated  crop  in  the  five  year  alfalfa  rotation.  In  that  case 
it  may  be  desirable  to  increase  the  rotation  to  six  years  using 
two  cultivated  crops  in  succession.  Either  or  both  of  these  ro- 
tations, clover  and  alfalfa,  may  be  used  on  the  same  farm  at 
the  same  time. 


The  Hog  Pasture  Rotation 

A large  variety  of  crops  may  be  used  for  hog  pasture.  Al- 
falfa is  sometimes  used  instead  of  clover,  and  when  it  grows 
luxuriantly  it  may  constitute  the  sole  forage  crop  for  hogs.  It 
furnishes  good,  nutritious  pasture  from  early  spring  to  late  fall. 
It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  several  small  fields  and  to  shift 
from  one  to  another  to  prevent  too  rapid  killing  out  of  the 
plants. 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


7 


Corn  is  a good  crop  to  “hog  down.”  Temporary  fences  may 
be  run  across  the  fields  and  moved  from  time  to  time  forcing 
the  hogs  to  clean  up  as  they  go,  thus  reducing  waste.  The  period 
during  which  corn  can  be  utilized  may  be  extended  by  using 
different  varieties  of  corn  or  by  planting  at  intervals.  Oats, 
peas,  and  rape  may  be  planted  together  or  separately.  Other 
grain  crops  may  be  used.  Succotash  is  the  name  of  a mixture 
of  small  grains  grown  together.  Where  many  hogs  are  kept, 
the  rotation  may  be  profitably  enlarged  to  five  or  six  fields  re- 
quiring ia  like  number  of  years  to  complete  the  rotation.  The 
fields  for  this  should  usually  be  close  to  the  barns.  Hog  pas- 
tures yielding  more  feed  than  is  needed  for  the  hogs  may  be 
pastured  with  other  stock  or  a portion  may  be  set  off  with  a 
temporary  fence  and  harvested. 

Size  of  Fields 

The  fields  should  be  as  large  as  possible.  Size  is  sometimes 
limited  by  natural  or  other  characteristics  of  the  farm ; a high- 
way, railroad,  brook,  ledge,  slough,  or  wood  lot  may  interfere. 
Otherwise  the  rotation  or  rotations  adopted  determine  the  size 
of  fields  as  indicated  above.  The  principle  is  to  divide  the  farm 
into  as  many  equal  fields  as  the  rotation  runs  in  years.  But, 
as  stated  above,  the  number  of  years  a rotation  runs  is  some- 
what governed  by  the  quantity  of  corn  or  of  hay  needed.  A 
simple  three  year  rotation  indicates  that  the  total  tillable  land 
be  worked  as  three  fields,  a five-year  rotation  as  five  fields.  On 
the  same  farm,  therefore,  the  individual  fields  will  be  smaller 
with  a five-year  rotation  in  effect  than  with  a three  or  a four- 
year  rotation.  A farm  with  a hundred  acres  under  cultivation 
would  have  for  a three-year  rotation  33  acres  each  of  corn, 
small  grains,  and  clover.  The  same  farm  with  a four-year  ro- 
tation providing  additional  corn  would  have  four  25-acre  fields, 
of  which  two,  or  50  acres,  would  be  corn.  Under  the  basic  five- 
year  alfalfa  rotation  there  would  be  five  fields  of  20  acres,  20 
acres  of  corn,  20  of  small  grains  and  60  acres  of  alfalfa.  If 
more  corn  were  desired  and  the  six-year  rotation  adopted,  there 
would  be  33  acres  of  corn,  17  of  small  grains  and  50  of  alfalfa. 
Other  modifications  of  acreage  used  for  each  crop  may  be  ef- 
fected by  combining  an  alfalfa  and  a clover  rotation  in  various 
proportions. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


Large  fields  materially  reduce  the  expense  of  fencing.  The 
use  of  the  tractor  makes  large  fields  desirable.  In  eases  where 
the  soil  of  a field  is  not  uniform,  and  cannot  well  be  given  the 
same  treatment  throughout,  it  may  be  necessary  to  leave  the 
field  divided.  Tile  drains  may  be  used  to  render  such  a field 
capable  of  uniform  treatment  when  the  chief  trouble  is  too  much 
water. 


Shape  of  Fields 

Irregular  fields  are  difficult  to  work.  They  should,  therefore, 
be  laid  out  as  nearly  rectangular  as  possible.  In  plowing,  plant- 
ing, cultivating  and  harvesting  it  is  decidedly  better  to  have 
long  rows  or  strips  than  short  ones.  Fields  one-half  longer 
than  wide  are  desirable  when  they  can  be  arranged.  The  shape 
of  a field  may  often  be  much  improved  by  drainage,  or  by  clear- 
ing away  rocks  or  stumps  along  edges  or  in  corners. 

Location  of  Fields 

Considerable  time  and  some  land  will  be  saved  if  the  fields 
are  laid  out  so  as  to  be  easily  reached,  with  the  entrance  as  near 
the  buildings  as  possible.  This  is  particularly  true  where  pas- 
ture is  a part  of  the  rotation  plan.  Where  the  public  highway 
divides  the  farm,  two  or  more  rotations  may  be  desirable.  The 
one  including  pasture  should  be  located  on  the  same  side  of  the 
road  as  the  barns,  where  possible.  The  revised  plans  following 
show  how  these  objects  are  attained  as  compared  with  the  orig- 
inal time-consuming  plans.  % 

Some  consideration  will  usually  be  given  to  the  location  of 
fields  from  the  viewpoint  of  their  influence  on  the  appearance 
of  the  farmstead  and  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  family. 
The  orchard  and  garden  are  usually  located  near  the  house. 
Hog  lots  should  be  removed  from  house,  dairy,  and  public  high- 
way. The  farm  woodlot  is  usually  a fixture,  sometimes  in  an 
inconvenient  position,  but  a well-kept  grove  near  the  house  is 
attractive. 

Slope  of  Fields 

Where  the  slope  of  any  part  of  the  farm  is  such  that  seri- 
ous soil  erosion  may  occur,  the  fields  should  be  arranged  so  that 


The  F ari\i  Well  Planned 


9 


they  may  be  worked  at  right  angles  to  the  natural  wash  of  the 
soil.  This  is  important  and  may  necessitate  a totally  different 
arrangement  from  what  might  otherwise  be  desirable. 

Miscellaneous  Considerations 

The  availability  and  character  of  the  water  supply  should  be 
considered  in  locating  buildings,  yards  and  pastures. 

Fences  should  not  be  used  unless  necessary  as  they  are  ex- 
pensive, untidy,  and  useless  except  for  pasture  purposes. 

Farms  frequently  have  considerable  waste  or  non-productive 
land.  A plan  should  include  consideration  of  possible  uses  to 
which  this  land  may  be  put.  The  removal  of  stumps  or  rocks, 
the  drainage  of  swamps,  or  the  putting-in  of  a tile-head  in  a 
pocket  or  a low  spot  may  make  it  easy  to  straighten  some  of  the 
irregular  fields,  economize  in  labor  and  add  to  the  productive- 
ness of  the  farm. 

It  is  well  to  draw  a map  in  replanning  to  show  the  size  and 
arrangement  of  the  fields  as  they  are  wanted  eventually  whether 
the  plan  will  be  realized  one  or  five  years  hence.  The  pian 
should  be  definite  and  every  move  made  in  accordance  with 
it.  There  are,  of  course,  factors  which  may  delay  its  realiza- 
tion. Stumps  may  be  in  the  process  of  rotting ; land  may  need 
to  be  cleared  of  timber;  or  stones  and  old  fences  may  need  to 
be  removed  and  new  fences  built.  Even  with  cleared,  culti- 
vated land  the  crop  of  the  year  before  may  affect  the  plan.  A 
good  stand  of  cloyer  or  alfalfa  should  not  be  plowed  under  sim- 
ply because  it  is  located  on  land  where  the  rotation  normally 
calls  for  a different  crop  that  year.  The  rotation  must  be  ad- 
justed to  the  crop  conditions  on  the  farm  at  the  time  the  new 
plan  is  started.  This  is  readily  done  as  the  rotation  schedules 
following  indicate.  (See  pages  15-17). 

Pasture  in  rotation  is  more  expensive  than  permanent  pas- 
ture but  it  is  more  productive.  It  is  also  a means  of  adjusting 
the  labor  requirements  on  the  farm.  When  there  is  plenty  of 
help,  more  feed  will  be  available  if  all  the  fields  are  worked. 
When  labor  is  scarce  a fair  amount  of  feed  can  be  provided 
through  use  of  more  meadow  land,  part  of  it  harvested  by  the 
cows  themselves. 

Where  the  farm  does  not  make  enough  stable  manure  to  main- 
tain fertility,  the  manure  may  be  used  on  the  fields  near  the 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


barn,  the  more  distant  being  maintained  by  plowing  under 
green  manure  (legumes)  together  with  rock  phosphate,  lime  or 
other  elements  as  needed. 


STEPS  IN  PLANNING  THE  ROTATION 

The  layout  of  the  farm  depends  on  the  rotation  to  be  followed. 
The  aim  is  to  provide  one  or  more  rotations  that  will  furnish 
the  needed  feed,  including  pasture,  and  maintain  fertility.  This 
rotation  should  be  adjusted  to  lend  itself  to  economy  in  the 
amount  and  distribution  of  labor  on  the  farm.  In  arranging  for 
the  lay-out  of  the  fields  the  first  step  is  to  find  the  number  of  cul- 
tivated acres  on  the  farm.  If  a hog  pasture  is  to  be  provided, 
acreage  sufficient  for  a hog  rotation  is  set  aside  and  located  if  pos- 
sible within  easy  access  to  the  hog  barns  and  yards.  The  remain- 
ing cultivated  acres  are  then  divided  for  field  purposes,  according 
to  the  rotation  or  rotations  desired.  If  125  acres  are  available 
for  this  purpose,  and  it  is  desired  to  have  one  field,  say  25  acres, 
set  aside  for  alfalfa  or  other  special  crops,  and  the  balance  put 
into  a four-year  rotation  with  clover  and  timothy  as  the  hay 
and  pasture  crop  it  will  require  five  fields.  In  this  case  the 
available  acreage  is  divided  into  five  fields  of  25  acres  each. 
The  fields  in  any  one  rotation  are  arranged  to  be  as  nearly  the 
same  size  as  possible,  and  where  feasible  made  to  join  each  other. 
Effort  is  made  to  locate  each  rotation  whe^  it  will  best  serve  the 
interests  of  the  farm.  If  pasture  is  provided  in  rotation  it  will 
usually  be  with  the  rotation  containing  clover  which  means  that 
this  rotation  should,  where  possible,  be  located  within  easy  ac- 
cess of  the  barnyards  or  permanent  pasture  lot. 

The  Rotation  Schedule 

In  connection  with  the  revised  plan  of  the  farm  it  is  conven- 
ient to  have  a schedule  for  each  rotation  showing  just  which 
crop  goes  into  each  field  each  year.  These  should  be  made  out 
separately  and  kept  with  the  maps.  In  the  schedule  each  crop 
is  given  a number  according  to  its  order  in  the  rotation.  A 
good  way  is  to  number  or  letter  the  fields  and  below  these  to 
arrange  the  crops  to  be  used  on  that  field.  In  the  suggestions 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


11 


below,  substitute  crops  are  designated  by  letters.  These  are 
crops  used  out  of  order  in  the  rotation  during  the  transition 
period.  They  are  often  necessary  before  the  new  rotations  are 
established  as  planned  or  because  of  the  failure  of  seedings. 
The  starting  point  of  a rotation  schedule  is  usually  a field  that 
was  seeded  down  the  preceding  year. 

Making  Rotation  Schedules  Meet  Conditions 

Winter  killing  of  clover  and  alfalfa  will  interfere  seriously 
with  the  operation  of  any  rotation  schedule;  and  some  farmers 
assert  they  cannot  adopt  a rotation  on  this  account.  When  a 
seeding  fails  to  “ catch,”  or  winterkills,  a little  careful  plan- 
ning will  enable  one  to  make  such  substitution  as  will  prepare 
the  field  for  the  next  crop  in  the  rotation.  In  the  rotation 
plans  in  this  bulletin,  alfalfa  and  clover  are  used  frequently. 
If  alfalfa  winterkills  one  year  before  the  schedule  time  for 
breaking  up,  a crop  of  oats  and  peas  or  any  other  annual  crop 
may  be  used  that  year  after  which  the  field  will  fall  into  the 
regular  rotation.  If  alfalfa  kills  out  two  years  ahead  of  time, 
grain  seeded  to  clover  may  be  substituted  the  first  year  to  be 
followed  by  clover  hay  the  second,  after  which  the  clover  sod 
should  be  plowed  up  and  the  field  planted  to  corn.  Where  pre- 
ferred, two  annual  crops  may  be  grown  instead.  If  alfalfa  kills 
out  earlier  than  this,  the  field  can  be  seeded  back  to  alfalfa  or  a 
crop  of  grain  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy  can  be  substituted. 
This  will  run  two  years  after  seeding. 

If  clover  kills  out,  an  annual  crop  may  be  substituted.  In 
substituting  for  alfalfa  or  clover  it  is  usually  desirable  to  select 
a crop  that  will  furnish  hay  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  quality 
of  that  lost  to  the  farm  by  the  winter-killing.  Oats  and  peas 
serve  this  purpose  well  in  Wisconsin.  Soybeans  may  also  be 
used  with  advantage. 

\\  hen  pasture  kills  out,  succotash — a mixture  of  two  or  more 
spring  grains — may  take  its  place. 

Alfalfa  and  sometimes  red  clover  may  kill  out  in  low  or  wet 
places  in  the  field.  Where  this  occurs,  alsike  clover  may  be  sub- 
stituted. 

When  a farm  is  not  fully  stocked,  or  if  the  land  needs  special 
treatment  in  the  way  of  inoculation  or  liming,  or  if  the  farmer 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


needs  to  acquire  skill  and  experience  in  handling  unfamiliar 
crops,  substitutes  may  be  desirable.  These  should  be  selected 
and  adjusted  to  be  out  of  the  way  when  the  time  comes  for  the 


Pasture 


Peas 


Hogs 


Buckwheat 


Corn 


Hay 


Wheat 

1 ■ 
■ 

X 

Ul 

o 

L^_ 

Potatoes 


ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Corn 

(2) 

Corn  (3) 
Grain  seeded  (a) 

TO  CLOVER  1 ' 

Clover  (1) 

Clover  (l) 

Graim  (4) 

1" 

■ 

Permanent 

Alfalfa 

ft  APE  (3) 

Corn  (2) 

SECOND  YEAR 


Grain 

SEEDED 

to  Clover 
(4) 

Clover  (1) 
Corn  (2) 
Corn  (3) 

flAPE  (3) 

Corn  [2) 

I" 

■ 

Permanent 

Alfalfa 

Clover(i) 

Grain  (4) 

FOURTH  YEAR 


1 

i 

i 

V 1 

1 

Corn 

U) 

Clover ! 
<»  : 

| 

eh 

i 

Corn 

(3) 

1 

1 

r* 

vm 

Grain  seeded 

14) 

U Grain  (4) 

TO  CLOVER 

III  RAPE  13) 

a“ 

_ Permanent 

n Corn  (2) 

m 

K Alfalfa 

I Clover  (I) 

IB 

FIRST  YEAR 


i 

i 

1 

1 

1 

Grain  seeded 

TO  CLOVER 

(4) 

Corn 

(3) 

1 

Clover 

0) 

Corn 

(2) 

Corn  (2) 

CLOVER  (|) 

Grain  (4J 
Rape  (3) 

I" 

■ 

Permanent 

Alfalfa 

THIRD  YEAR 


Clover 

(i) 

Corn  (2) 

Corn  (3) 

Grain  seeded  . . 

TO  CLOVER  ™ 

Gbaim  |4) 

Rape  {3) 

■ 

Permanent 

Alfalfa 

Corn  (2) 

Clover  it) 

FIFTH  YEAR 


( 


PLAN  SHOWING  HOW’  ROTATION  OF  CROPS  WORKS  OVER  A 
PERIOD  OF  FIVE  YEARS 


regular  crop  called  for  in  the  rotation  plan  and  for  which  the 
soil  is  in  suitable  condition. 

Noxious  v’eeds  like  quack  grass  and  Canada  thistles  may  in- 
terfere with  the  seeding  down  of  a field.  Then  it  may  be  de- 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


13 


sirable  to  substitute  cultivated  crops  until  such  weeds  are  eradi- 
cated. Fortunately,  a good  stand  of  alfalfa  will  kill  out  many 
weeds,  including  Canada  thistles. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  usually  seeded  with  some  grain  as  a 
nurse  crop.  This  utilizes  the  land  and  materially  checks  the 
weeds.  On  clean  land  it  is  possible  to  seed  alfalfa  without  a 
nurse  crop  and,  if  the  season  is  favorable,  to  obtain  one  crop  of 
hay  the  same  year.  It  is  also  possible  to  seed  without  a nurse 
crop  in  June  and  July.  Some  farmers  are  very  successful  in 
growing  a crop  of  peas  and  then  seeding  down  to  alfalfa. 

The  grain  used  for  the  nurse  crop  varies  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  farmer.  Barley,  perhaps,  is  most  frequently  used. 
Oats  probably  come  -second  and  occasionally  a seeding  is  ob- 
tained with  peas.  Good  stands  of  clover  and  timothy  are  ob- 
tained by  seeding  timothy  with  rye  in  the  fall  and  seeding  the 
clover  on  the  same  field  in  the  spring.  With  all  nurse  crops, 
care  needs  to  be  taken  not  to  have  them  too  heavy  so  as  to 
smother  the  new  seeding,  or  to  sap  unduly  the  moisture  needed 
by  young  clover  or  alfalfa. 

Typical  Farms  Replanned 

The  principles  of  planning  or  replanning  a farm  layout  and 
adjusting  this  plan  to  a systematic  cropping  system  may  be  il- 
lustrated by  taking  an  actual  farm  and  showing  step  by  step 
the  process  by  which  these  principles  are  applied. 

FARM  NO.  1. — Total  acres,  120;  2 miles  from  railroad  sta- 
tion ; type  of  soil,  clay  loam  (Burr  oak  prairie)  ; topog- 
raphy, rolling;  16  acres  of  permanent  pasture  and  woods,  98 
acres  available  for  cultivated  crops. 

In  the  original  map  the  fields  are  designated  by  letters  start- 
ing with  the  letter  A at  the  residence  and  proceeding  around 
the  farm  clockwise.  In  the  revised  map  the  fields  are  marked 
with  Roman  numerals. 

On  this  farm  the  land  is  well  drained.  Fields  A,  B,  and  C 
have  sufficient  slope  to  necessitate  cultivation  north  and  south 
to  prevent  soil  erosion.  There  is  a ditch  through  Fields  E and 
F,  leaving  a shallow  run  which  must  be  kept  in  grass  to  carry 
off  the  surface  water  after  heavy  rains.  The  residence,  chicken 
houses,  and  a shed  designed  for  curing  tobacco  are  on  one  side 
of  the  road  and  the  barns  on  the  other. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


The  farm  has  been  badly  run  down  from  renting.  The  owner 
is  trying  to  build  it  up  and  to  get  started  in  the  dairy  business, 
gradually  working  into  purebred  dairy  cattle.  He  desires  to 
sell  market  cream  and  eventually  to  go  into  market  milk  pro- 


FARM  NO.  1. — REVISED  PLAN 


ductiori.  He  wants  to  raise  all  the  roughage  and  in  addition 
as  much  grain  as  he  can.  With  his  cropping  system,  he  desires 
to  use  purebred  seeds  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  largest 
production,  and  when  market  conditions  are  right  to  sell  seeds 
and  buy  feed.  He  also  desires  to  raise  a considerable  number 
of  hogs,  and  for  this  purpose  intends  to  keep  from  10  to  15 
brood  sows. 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


15 


In  revising  the  farm  plan,  provision  is  first  made  for  the  hog 
pasture,  since  these  fields  should  be  near  the  barn.  The  next 
consideration  is  the  rotation  providing  pasture  for  the  dairy 
herd.  The  owner  desires  to  have  both  clover  and  alfalfa  as 
leading  hay  crops. 

Fortunately,  the  land  best  suited  to  alfalfa  is  located  in  the 
west  ‘ ‘ forty,  ” as  is  the  residence.  This  makes  it  possible  to  lo- 
cate the  rotation  containing  clover  (including  pasture)  on  one 
side  of  the  road,  so  that  any  field  in  this  rotation  is  readily 
accessible. 

Before  drawing  the  revised  map  of  the  farm  it  is  necessary 
to  select  the  number  and  character  of  the  rotations  so  as  to  de- 
termine the  number  of  fields  needed  for  the  cropping  systems. 

After  a conference  with  the  owner  of  this  farm  it  was  decided 
that  for  his  particular  needs  it  was  best  to  provide  a four-year 
rotation  for  hog  pasture,  a four-year  rotation  with  clover  and 
a five-year  rotation  with  alfalfa. 

In  this  revised  map  it  will  be  seen  that  eight  acres  (Fields 
XI,  XII,  XIII  and  XIV)  have  been  set  aside  for  the  hog  pas- 
ture rotation;  40  acres  (Fields  VI,  VII,  IX  and  X)  are 
set  aside  for  the  rotation  containing  clover  and  pasture  for  the 
dairy  herd;  and  50  acres  (Fields  I,  II,  III,  IV-A,  IV-B  and 
V)  for  the  alfalfa  rotation. 

Having  decided  upon  the  number  and  character  of  the  rota- 
tions needed  for  the  farm,  the  next  step  is  to  make  out  a “"Ro- 
tation Schedule”  for  each,  showing  what  crop  is  to  be  planted 
in  each  field  yearly. 


Farm  No.  1 — Rotation  Schedule  1 — Hog  Pasture* 


Year 

Field  XI 
(2  acres) 

Field  XII 
(2  acres) 

Field  XIII 
(2  acres) 

Field  XIV 
(2  acres) 

1st  192.. 

(2)  Corn 

(3)  Oats,  peas 
and  rape 

(4)  Grain  seeded 
to  clover 

(A)  Barley 

2nd  192  .. 

(3)  Oats,  peas 
and  rape 

(4)  Grain  seeded 
to  clover 

(1)  Clover 

(2)  Corn 

3rd  192.. 

(4)  Grain  seeded 
to  clover 

(1)  Clover 

(2)  Corn 

(3)  Oats,  peas 
and  rape 

4th  192.. 

(1)  Clover 

(2)  Corn 

(3)  Oats,  peas 
and  rape 

(4)  Grain  seeded 
to  clover 

* When  a seeding  fails  or  winterkills  see  “Making  Rotation  Schedules  Meet  Condi- 
tions.” Page  11. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


In  starting  a rotation  schedule  it  is  usual  to  start  with  a field 
already  seeded  down  to  clover.  In  the  hog  pasture  rotation 
there  was  no  field  seeded  the  preceding  year,  so  it  was  deemed 
wise  to  start  with  Field  XIII  which  was  in  the  best  condition 
for  seeding.  Starting  this  field  with  crop  No.  (4)  it  was  then 
an  easy  matter  to  assign  the  other  fields  their  appropriate  crops 
and  proceed  systematically  with  the  schedule. 

Barley  is  used  as  a substitute  crop  for  Field  XIV,  which  would 
normally  be  in  clover.  Any  other  annual  crop  could  be  used 
instead  of  barley  without  interfering  with  the  plan  of  the  ro- 
tation. 


Farm  No.  1— Rotation  Schedule  II— Rotation  With  Clover* 


Year 

Field  VI 

Field  VTI 

Field  IX 

Field  X 

(10  acres) 

(10  acres) 

(10  acres) 

(10  acres) 

1st  192.. 

(4)  Grain  seeded 

VA)  Oats  and 

(B)  Pasture  3 a. 

(3)  Corn 

to  clover  and 
timothy 

peas 

Corn  7 a. 

(4)  Grain  seeded 

2nd  192.. 

(1)  Clover  and 

(B)  Oats  and 

(3)  Corn 

to  clover  and 

timothy 

meadow 

peas 

timothy. 

3rd  192.. 

(2)  Clover  and 

(3)  Corn 

(4)  Grain  seeded 

(1)  Clover  and 

timothy  pas- 

to clover  and 

timothy 

ture 

timothy 

meadow 

4th  192.. 

(3)  Corn 

(4)  Grain  seeded 

(1)  Clover  and 

(2)  Clover  and 

to  clover  and 

timothy 

timothy  pas- 

timothy 

meadow 

ture 

* What  to  substitute  when  a seeding  fails  or  winterkills  see  “Making  Rotation 
Schedules  Meet  Conditions.”  Page  11.  M 


Field  IX  (rotation  with  clover)  contained  3 acres  of  pasture 
left  from  a previous  seeding.  In  order  to  preserve  what  little 
seeding  there  is  available,  the  rotation  schedule  was  started  with 
this  field.  In  deciding  on  the  substitute  for  Field  VII  it  was 
thought  wise  to  grow  oats  and  peas,  cut  for  hay,  since  the  farm 
was  decidedly  short  of  hay.  After  the  second  year  the  schedule 
adjusted  itself  to  the  regular  rotation. 

The  schedule  for  the  alfalfa  rotation  is  made  on  the  assump- 
tion that  it  is  possible  to  prepare  one  field  a year  for  seeding  to 
alfalfa.  If  this  is  not  possible,  it  is  easy  to  substitute  a rotation 
with  clover  in  three  or  four  of  the  fields.  Alfalfa  can  then  be 
tried  in  one  field,  or  even  a portion  of  a field,  until  conditions 
justify  a larger  acreage. 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


17 


Farm  No.  1 Rotation  Schedule  III— Rotation  With  Alfalfa* 


Year 

Field  I 
(10  acres) 

Field  II 
(10  acres) 

Field  III 
(10  acres) 

Field  IV- A and 
IV-B 
(10  acres) 

Field  V 
(10  acres) 

1st  192- 

(A)  Corn  5a. 
Tobacco  5a. 

(B)  Corn 

(C)  Oats  and 
peas 

(4)  Corn 

(5)  Grain  seed- 
ed to  alfalfa 

2nd  192- 

(B)  Corn  6ia. 
Potatoes  2a. 
Tobacco  11a. 

(C)  Oats  and 
peas 

(4)  Corn 

(5)  Grain  seed- 
ed to  alfalfa 

(1)  Alfalfa 

3rd 192- 

(C)  Oats  and 
peas 

(4)  Corn 

(5)  Grain  seed- 
ed to  alfalfa 

(1)  Alfalfa 

(2)  Alfalfa 

4th  192- 

(4)  Corn 

(5)  Grain  seed- 
ed to  alfalfa 

(1)  Alfalfa 

(2)  Alfalfa 

(3)  Alfalfa 

5th  192- 

(5)  Grain  seed- 
ed to  alfalfa 

(1)  Alfalfa 

(2)  Alfalfa 

(3)  Alfalfa 

(4)  Corn 

* What  to  substitute  when  a seeding  fails  or  winter  kills  see  “Making  Rotation  Schedules 
leet  Conditions.’’  Page  11. 


This  farmer  desired  to  grow  tobacco  for  a few  years  as  a cash 
crop.  Provision  is  made  for  this  in  the  substitute  crops. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Field  III  requires  one  year,  Field  II, 
two  years,  and  Field  1,  three  years,  before  they  are  ready  for  the 
regular  rotation.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  substitute  some 
clover  until  alfalfa  has  shown  its  adaptability  to  the  farm,  a 
considerably  longer  time  would  be  needed  to  make  the  transi- 
tion. The  farmer,  however,  has  a definite  plan  before  him  and 
adjusts  his  operations  to  that  plan. 

Objections  to  the  plan.  The  plan  given  for  Farm  No.  I 
makes  the  fields  rather  small,  ten  acres  each.  This  would  be 
particularly  objectionable  if  a tractor  were  being  used.  Again, 
Field  IV  is  separated  into  two  parts*,  A and  B,  which  is  objec- 
tionable, but  unavoidable.  In  the  rotation  containing  alfalfa, 
however,  there  will  be  no  fences,  and  for  many  farm  operations 
(two  or  more  fields  can  be  grouped  together  and  handled  as 
though  they  were  in  one  large  field. 


Another  Revised  Plan  of  Farm  No.  1 

The  second  revised  plan  of  Farm  No.  1 provides  for  larger 
fields  by  dividing  the  cultivated  land,  other  than  pasture  for 
hogs,  into  five  fields  of  about  18  acres  each. 

One  of  these  fields  can  be  set  aside  for  alfalfa,  the  remaining 
four  fields  can  be  devoted  to  a four  year  rotation  with  clover 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


and  timothy  as  a hay  crop.  The  rotation  would  be  essentially 
the  same  as  provided  in  Schedule  II,  except  that  in  this  second 
revised  plan  pasture  in  rotation  would  probably  be  omitted  and 


FARM  NO.  1. — ANOTHER  REVISED  PLAN  WHICH  MAKES  PROVISION 
FOR  LARGER  FIELDS 


a second  year  hay  crop  obtained  instead.  The  adoption  of  this 
plan  will  call  for  the  extensive  use  of  the  summer  silo,  or  for  a 
liberal  allowance  of  soiling  crops.  It  will  permit  the  keeping 
of  a larger  number  of  cattle,  however,  and  will  make  possible 
dividing  the  farm  into  larger  fields. 

Plans  of  Other  Farms 

Farm  No.  1 has  been  considered  in  detail  in  order  to  show 
the  method  of  laying  out  a farm  plan.  The  original  and  re- 
vised plans  of  Farms  Nos.  2 to  10  are  presented  to  show  a va- 
riety of  conditions  under  which  farm  plans  can  be  laid  out. 

The  replanned  farms  and  cropping  systems  which  follow  rep- 
resent actual  farms  and  have  been  carefully  planned  in  consul- 
tation with  the  owners  and  approved  by  them.  In  most  instances 
the  plans  are  in  actual  operation,  some  of  them  running  for  sev- 
eral years. 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


19 


Major  rotation : (1)  Alfalfa*  (2)  Clover  (3)  Corn  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Grain  seeded  to  clover — Fields  VI-X  inclusive. 

Minor  rotation:  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Grain  seeded  to 
clover— Fields  II,  III  and  IV. 


* One  field  is  set  aside  for  alfalfa  and  remains  in  this  crop  as  long-  as 
there  is  a good  stand.  When  necessary  to  reseed,  the  alfalfa  is  shifted  to 
another  field.  The  remaining  four  fields  adjust  themselves  to  a regular 
four  year  rotation. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


Major  rotation:  (1)  Alfalfa  (2)  Alfalfa  (3)  Alfalfa  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Com  (6)  Grain  seeded  to  alfalfa. 

Fields  VII  to  XII  inclusive 

Minor  rotation : (1)  Clover  and  Timothy  (2)  Pasture  (3)  Corn 
(4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy. 

Fields  II  to  V inclusive 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


21 


Major  rotation:  (1)  Clover  (2)  Pasture  (3)  Corn  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Grain  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy. 

Fields  III  to  VII  inclusive 

Minor  rotation : (Hog  Rotation)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3) 

Rape  or  succotash  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  I,  II,  IX  and  X inclusive 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


FARM  NO.  5. — ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Major  rotation : (1)  Alfalfa  (2)  Alfalfa  (3)  Alfalfa  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Grain  seeded  to  alfalfa. 

Fields  III  to  YII  inclusive 

Fields  I and  II  permanently  in  hay.  Field  VIII  in  perma- 
nent pasture. 

Illustrates  the  plan  of  leaving  part  of  the  land  out  of  the 
rotation. 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


23 


FARM  NO.  6.— ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Major  rotation : (1)  Alfalfa  (2)  Alfalfa  (3)  Alfalfa  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Grain  seeded  to  Alfalfa. 

Fields  XII  to  XYI  inclusive 

Minor  rotation:  (1)  Clover  and  Timothy  (2)  Pasture  (3) 
Corn  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy. 

Fields  I,  III,  IV  and  V 

Minor  rotation:  (Hog  Pasture)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3) 

Rape  or  succotash  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  VI  to  IX  inclusive 


24  Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 

V 


Major  rotation : (1)  Clover  and  timothy  (2)  Pasture  (3)  Com 
(4)  Corn  (5)  Grain  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy. 

Fields  III  to  VII  inclusive 

Minor  rotation:  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Corn  (4)  Grain 
seeded  to  clover. 


Fields  XII  to  XV  inclusive 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


25 


Minor  rotation:  (Hog  Pasture)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Rape 
or  succotash  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  VIII  to  XI  inclusive 

Special  crops : Field  I,  permanent  alfalfa ; to  be  plowed  and 
reseeded  to  alfalfa  whenever  necessary. 

Field  XVI,  permanent  alfalfa ; or  if  desired 
this  field  can  be  substituted  for  one  in  the 
minor  rotation  (XII  to  XV)  whenever  the 
alfalfa  runs  out,  and  one  of  the  latter  used 
for  alfalfa. 


Plan  Your  Farm 

It  is  very  important  for  a farmer  to  have  a broad, 
comprehensive  plan  or  ideal  before  him  in  developing 
his  farm,  even  though  it  may  take  years  to  realize  it. 
Every  move  in  rearranging  fields,  building  fences,  con- 
structing buildings,  planting  fruit  trees  or  shrubbery, 
can  be  made  to  fit  in  and  adjust  itself  to  this  plan. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


a-' 


,)  A 


FARM  NO.  8.— ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Major  rotation : (1)  Alfalfa  (2)  Alfalfa  (3)  Alfalfa  (4)  Corn 
(5)  Corn  (6)  Grain  seeded  to  alfalfa. 

Fields  V to  X inclusive 

Minor  rotation:  (Purebred  seeds)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3) 
Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  XI  to  XIII  inclusive 

Minor  rotation : (Hog  pasture)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Rape 
or  succotash  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  I to  IV  inclusive 


The  Farm  Well  Planned 


27 


FARM  NO.  9.— ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Major  rotation:  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Corn  (4)  Grain 
seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  III,  IV,  VII,  VIII 

Special  crop : Field  IX,  permanent  alfalfa ; or  if  desired  this 
field  can  be  substituted  for  one  in  the  major 
rotation  whenever  the  alfalfa  runs  out  and 
one  of  the  latter  used  for  alfalfa. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  328 


FARM  NO.  10.— ORIGINAL  PLAN 


Major  rotation:  (1)  Clover  (2)  Com  (3)  Corn  (4)  Grain 
seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  Y to  VIII  inclusive 

Minor  rotation : (Hog  pasture)  (1)  Clover  (2)  Corn  (3)  Rape 
or  succotash  (4)  Grain  seeded  to  clover. 

Fields  I to  IV  inclusive 

Special  Crop : Field  IX,  permanent  alfalfa ; or  if  desired  this 
field  can  be  substituted  for  one  in  the  ma- 
jor rotation  (Y  to  VIII)  whenever  the  al- 
falfa runs  out  and  one  of  the  latter  used 
for  alfalfa. 


March,  1921 


'Bulletin  329 


iSBBi 

I FOR 
WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPRR  I M ENT  • STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


DIGEST 

Field  peas  are  one  of  Wisconsin’s  most  profitable  crops.  They 
yield  good  returns  as  hay,  pasture,  silage  or  seed.  Pages  3-8 

The  largest  dry  pea  producing  center  lies  in  northeastern  Wiscon- 
sin in  the  region  adjoining  Lake  Michigan  and  Green  Bay.  Anew 
pea  belt  is  in  process  of  development  in  the  red  clay  region  adjoin- 
ing Lake  Superior.  Page  3 

Dry  peas  are  grown  as  cheaply  as  oats  under  modern  conditions. 
On  a ten-year  average  they  pay  better  per  acre  than  barley,  oats, 
rye,  wheat  and  hay.  (1908—1917)  Page  4 

Peas  as  grain  are  higher  in  feeding  value  than  corn,  barley,  and 
oats.  As  hay,  they  outrank  all  others  even  alfalfa.  Mixed  with  oats 
for  silage  they  are  equal  to  corn  in  feed  value  and  outrank  corn  in 
yield  on  heavy  clay  soils.  Page  7 

Peas  are  adapted  to  a variety  of  soils  but  grow  especially  well 
on  loams  and  clays  high  in  lime.  Page  9 

Well-drained  land  is  necessary  for  peas.  Proper  plowing  helps  to 
provide  this.  Page  10 

Peas  should  be  sown  early  on  a well-prepared  seed  bed  at  a uni- 
form depth  which  ranges  from  2 to  3 inches.  Small  sized  peas  re- 
quire 6 to  8 pecks  an  acre  for  seed;  medium  sized  peas  require  8 to 
10;  and  large  sized  peas  require  12  to  14  pecks.  Pages  11-12 

Peas  should  be  cut  with  the  mower  with  attachment.  They  should 
then  be  stored  under  a good  roof  and  threshed  with  a properly  fitted 
grain  thresher.  Pages  13-15 


Proper  rotations  and  often  inoculation  are  necessary  for  profitable 
returns.  Pages  18-19 


The  best  varieties  to  plant  are  pedigree  strains  of  Green,  Scotch, 
and  Marrowfat.  Only  one  variety  should  be  grown  in  a locality  to 
avoid  mixing.  Good  seed  may  be  secured  through  the  Ashland 
Branch  Experiment  Station.  Pages  23-24 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 

E.  J.  Delwiche 

Suitable  soil  and  climatic  conditions  help  to  make  Wisconsin 
the  leading  state  in  the  production  of  both  field  and  canning 
peas. 

Field  peas  are  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops,  whether 
grown  for  the  market  or  for  livestock  feed.  As  hay,  pasture, 
silage  or  seed,  field  peas  yield  good  returns.  The  varieties 
grown  for  human  consumption  pay  better  than  any  cereal 
grain  crop  grown. 

Peas  are  neither  a difficult  nor  an  expensive  crop  to  grow. 
The  crop  is  machine-handled.  Cost  records  show  that  on  the 
acre  basis  peas  cost  less  than  oats  to  produce. 

Where  Peas  Grow  Best  in  Wisconsin 

The  leading  dry  peas  section  of  Wisconsin  is  the  eastern  and 
northeastern  part  of  the  state.  The  greater  part  of  the  crop 
is  produced  north  of  the  southern  boundaries  of  Calumet  and 
Manitowoc  Counties,  in  the  counties  bordering  on  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  in  the  basin  of  the  Fox  River  and  other  streams 
emptying  into  Green  Bay.  The  comparatively  cool  summer 
climate  of  this  region  and  the  prevailing  clay  soil  well  supplied 
with  lime  are  the  chief  factors  favoring  production.  Tests 
carried  on  for  several  years  in  cooperation  with  growers  in  the 
heart  of  this  area  show  that  when  proper  attention  is  paid  to 
seed,  soil,  and  rotation  the  pea  crop  is  just  as  profitable  as  it 
ever  was. 


Table  I. — Acreage  and  Production  of  Dry  Peas  in  Wisconsin 


Year 

Acreage 

Production 

(bushels) 

Acre  yield 
(bushels) 

1899 

68,819 

1,098,819 

15.8 

1909 

78,017 

1,165,055 

14.9 

1919 

66,169 

882,252 

13.3 

1920 

55, 760 

1,062,783 

19.6 

4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


Experiments  and  demonstrations  made  by  the  Agronomy 
Department  at  the  Ashland  and  Superior  stations  and  in  co- 
operation with  farmers,  show  conclusively  that  another  compact 
seed  pea  area  can  be  developed  in  Wisconsin. 

Peas  Among  Best  Paying  Crops 

Peas  are  among  the  best  paying  cash  crops  for  the  red  clay 
soil  section  of  northern  Wisconsin.  Acre  for  acre,  peas  pay 
better  than  any  cereal  grains  grown  in  the  state.  (See  Table 
II.) 


Table  II. — A Comparison  of  Wisconsin  Crops  ( 1908  to  1917  Inclusive) 


Crop 

Average 
acre  yield 
in  bushels 

Average 
price  per 
bushel 
Dec.  1 

A verage 
value  per 
acre 

Estimated  | 
value  of 
straw 

Total 

value 

Scotch  peas 

16.0 

$2.53 

$40.48 

$4.00 

$44.48 

Barley 

28.9 

.74 

21.39 

3.00 

24.39 

Oats 

35.4 

.43 

14.22 

4.00 

18.22 

Rye 

17.4 

.89 

15.40 

4.00 

19.40 

Whea‘ 

19.3 

1.09 

2.24 

4.00 

25.25 

Hay 

1.56  to  i ' 

12.00 

17.76 

17.76 

Peas  Are  Grown  As  Cheaply  As  Oats 

There  is  a general  impression  that  growing  peas  requires  much 
hard  labor.  Under  modern  methods,  as  a matter  of  fact,  the 
crop  is  planted,  harvested,  unloaded  -from  the  wagon,  and 
threshed  by  machinery.  Cost  accounting  for  the  different  crops 


Table  II T. — Posts  and  Returns  from  Green  Field  Peas  and  Oats 


Year 

Value  of  crop 

Cost  to  produce  1 

Net  returns  per 
acre 

Oats 

Peas 

Oats 

Peas 

Oats 

Peas 

1914 : 

$18.33 

$42.66 

$10.53  ; 

. 

$12  23  ; 

$7.80 

$30.43 

1915 

54.04 

53.36 

11.14 

11.70 

42.90 

41.66 

1916 

38.80 

99.84 

11.75 

10.90 

27.05 

88.94 

1917 

68.00 

108.85 

17.50 

10.27 

50.50 

98.58 

1918 

37.13 

52.40 

15.04 

12.17 

22.09 

40.23 

1919 

41.25 

38.25 

18.02 

11 .55 

28.23 

26.70 

Average  for  six  years 

$42.93 

A6.V89- 

$14.00 

$11.47 

$28.93 

AsuisT 

Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


5 


at  branch  and  demonstration  stations  reveals  the  fact  that  peas 
cost  no  more  to  grow  ithan  oats  on  the  acre  basis.  The  results  in 
Table  III  were  obtained  at  the  Superior  station  in  1914—1919, 
by  men  who  had  had  little,  if  any,  previous  experience  in  grow- 
ing the  crop.  As  the  grower  becomes  more  proficient  in  grow- 
ing peas  the  cost  of  production  is  greatly  lowered.  The  most 
expensive  item  for  this  locality  is  plowing,  which  is  done  in  the 
fall. 


FIG.  1.— A HEAVY  PEA  CROP  AT  SUPERIOR  STATION 
Luxuriant  growth  of  one  of  the  best  pedigree  strains. 


Soup  Types  of  Peas  Promising 

In  1908  preliminary  tests  were  made  on  the  station  farm 
near  Ashland.  The  soil  there  is  of  the  red  clay  type.  The  re- 
sults were  so  satisfactory  that  work  with  peas  was  strongly  em- 
phasized at  this  station  and  at  the  Superior  demonstration  sta- 
tion. The  acre  yields  at  Ashland  have  averaged  22.6  bushels 
for  the  Green  and  22.9  bushels  for  Scotch  for  10  years  (1908- 
1919).  At  Superior  the  average  acre  yield  for  eight  years  was 
21  bushels  for  soup  pea  varieties  and  19  bushels  for  sweet 
wrinkled  canners.  On  Kennan  loam  soil  at  the  Busk  County 
demonstration  station  at  Conrath  the  Green  variety  has  aver- 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


aged  20^  bushels  an  acre  for  the  last  six  years.  In  a few 
seasons,  as  in  the  case  of  all  crops,  yields  have  been  low,  but 
the  average  acre  yield  has  been  approximately  5 bushels  higher 
than  the  average  for  the  state  for  the  same  period.  These  re- 
sults clearly  indicate  the  possibilities  for  growing  peas  of  the 
soup  types. 


Production  of  Seed  Peas 

Still  another  great  possibility  is  the  production  of  seed  peas  of 
canning  varieties  to  supply  the  needs  of  our  canning  factories. 
At  the  present  time  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  seed  used  is 
shipped  in.  The  results  of  tests  made  with  the  Horsford  var- 
iety, a sweet  wrinkled  type,  and  Alaska,  a well  known  round 
variety,  show  good  seed  producing  possibilities.  At  Ashland 
the  average  yield  for  4 years  was  15.6  bushels  for  Horsfords 
and  18.3  bushels  for  Alaskas. 

Soils  Adapted  to  Peas 

The  growing  of  peas  under  irrigation  entails  greater  expense 
than  under  humid  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  on  our  clay 
soils  considerable  attention  to  drainage  should  be  given,  for 
peas  are  easily  damaged  by  extreme  wetness.  Without  ques- 
tion, however,  if  the  grower  in  northern  Wisconsin  will  give 
the  time  and  care  to  growing  peas  that  is  required  under  irri- 
gation, he  can  produce  fully  as  good  crops  on  land  which,  at 
the  present  time,  costs  much  less.  Already  several  seed  com- 
panies have  begun  to  grow  peas  under  contract  with  very  satis- 
factory results.  In  one  instance,  a grower  of  sweet  wrinkled 
peas  grew  100  bushels  on  3%  acres  for  which  he  received  $6  a 
hundred  pounds. 

This  northern  region,  adapted  to  growing  seed  peas,  coin- 
cides with  the  belt  of  clay  and  loam  soils  of  the  Superior  type 
in  Douglas,  Bayfield,  Ashland  and  Iron  Counties.  The  loam 
soils  of  north  central  Wisconsin  are  also  well  adapted  to  peas. 
The  results  at  the  Conrath  station,  and  cooperative  tests  in 
Price,  Lincoln,  and  Langlade  Counties,  all  point  to  the  possi- 
bilities in  this  particular  region. 

The  amount  of  cleared  land  in  Upper  Wisconsin  is  compara- 
tively small  as  yet,  but  it  is  steadily  increasing.  Since  no  in- 
sect pests  nor  destructive  fungus  diseases  have  thus  far  in- 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


7 


fected  this  region,  it  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  seed  peas  or  dry  peas  of  the  field  or  canning  types. 

Peas  are  Excellent  Feed  for  Livestock 

The  comparative  feeding  value  of  peas  in  relation  to  other 
Wisconsin  grown  grains  is  shown  in  Table  IV.  Peas  outrank 
barley,  corn  and  oats  in  protein  nutrients  and  are  second  only 
to  corn  and  barley  in  total  nutrient  content.  Fed  with  a low 
protein  feed  such  as  barley,  oats  or  corn,  peas  are  very  valu- 
able. Cured  for  hay,  peas  are  higher  in  feeding  value  than  any 
other  hay  grown,  including  alfalfa. 


Table  IV. — Pounds  of  Digestible  Nutrient  in  100  Pounds  gf  Feed* 


Crop 

Protein 

Carbo- 

hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 

ratio 

Grain 

Peas 

19.8 

55.8 

0.6 

76.2 

1:3 

Corn 

7.5 

67.8 

4.6 

87.7 

1:10.4 

Barley 

9.0 

66.8 

1.6 

79.4 

1:7.8 

Oats 

9.7 

52.1 

3.8 

70.4 

1:6.3 

Hay 

Pea 

12.2 

40.1 

1.9 

56.6 

1:3.6 

Oat-pea 

8.3 

37.1 

1.5 

48.8 

1:4.9 

Alfalfa 

10.6 

39.0 

0.9 

51.6 

1:3.9 

Clover 

7.6 

39.3 

1.8 

50.9 

1:5.7 

Timothy 

3 0 

42.8 

1.2 

48.5 

1:15.2 

Silage 

Corn 

1.1 

15.0 

0.7 

17.7 

1:15.1 

Oat-pea 

2.8 

12.6 

1.0 

17.6 

1:5.3 

Pea  cannery  refuse 

1.6 

11.6 

0.8 

15.0 

1:8.4 

* Adapted  from  Henry  and  ] 

Morrison’s  “Feeds  and  Feeding.’ 

- 

Peas  or  Oats  Make  Good  Silage  or  Hay 

Peas  and  oats  mixed  in  about  equal  volume  and  sown  either 
broadcast  or  in  drills  so  they  can  be  cultivated,  yield  excellent 
returns  as  hay  or  silage.  At  the  Superior  station,  peas  and  oats 
planted  in  double  drills  30  inches  apart  and  cultivated  twice 
yielded  more  than  9 tons  of  forage  to  the  acre.  In  1918,  at  Con- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


rath,  Rusk  County,  on  loam  soil,  peas  and  oats  yielded  4%  tons 
of  thoroughly  cured  hay  to  the  acre,  or  an  equivalent  to  17  tons 
of  silage. 

Oat-pea  silage  contains  approximately  the  same  amount  of 
total  digestible  nutrients  to  the  acre  as  corn  silage.  Where  corn 
is  not  a sure  producer,  peas  and  oats  for  silage  are  valuable  to 
replace  or  supplement  corn  as  a silage  crop.  The  same  combi- 


FIG.  2.— PEAS  AND  OATS  ARE  AN  EXCELLENT  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CLOVER 

This  combination  may  also  be  used  successfully  for  ensilage,  particularly  in  sections 
■where  corn  is  not  successful. 


nation  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  clover  when  it  has  not  been 
provided  for  in  the  rotation  or  when  it  kills  out. 

Whether  the  crop  is  used  for  feed  or  is  sold  as  a cash  crop, 
depends  on  the  market  price  for  peas  and  other  grains. 

At  the  present  time,  December  1920,  peas  are  worth  $.0225 
a pound  as  compared  to  $.017  for  barley  and  $.0125  for  oats. 
Under  such  conditions  peas  should  be  sold  and  barley  bought 
for  feed.  In  some  localities  the  crop  can  more  profitably  be 
grown  for  hay  than  for  seed. 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


9 


HOW  TO  GROW  PEAS 
Loam  or  Clay  Soil  Best 

Peas  generally  grow  best  on  loams  and  clays  but  they  may  be 
grown  on  most  Wisconsin  soils.  On  warm  sandy  soil  the  crop 
suffers  in  dry  hot  weather  because  rapid  evaporation  causes  the 
plants  to  wilt  and  finally  dry  up.  On  soil  of  low  moisture-hold- 
ing capacity  the  pea  crop  should  be  cultivated  as  corn  and  pota- 
toes are.  Some  of  the  finest  seed  peas  are  grown  in  this  way. 


FIG.  4.— PEAS  NEED  DRAINAGE 

Land  subject  to  overflow  or  deficient  in  surface  drainage  should  be  avoided  but  clay 
soils  after  they  are  drained  are  very  satisfactory. 


At  the  Spooner  station  on  sandy  loam  soil  peas  were  grown 
and  cultivated  a few  times  in  June.  The  yields  were  very  satis- 
factory, and  the  quality  of  the  seed  excellent.  (Table  V).  The 
season  was  not  especially  favorable,  for  the  month  of  June  was 
hot  and  dry  in  1919,  while  July  1920  was  exceptionally  so.  In 
comparison  with  soybeans,  peas  yielded  much  better  in  1920 
while  in  1919  soybeans  gave  twice  the  return  per  acre. 

Table  Y. — Variety  Test  With  Field  and  Canning  Peas  at  Spooner 
Station — 1919-1920 — (Production  in  Bushels  60  Pounds  Weight) 


j Ped. 
108 

Green 

Ped. 

9152 

Scotch 

Ped. 

108 

Golden 

Vine 

Ped. 

10783 

Multi- 

plier 

Com- 

mon 

Alaska 

Ped. 

13.95 

Alaska 

Ped. 

10452 

Hors- 

ford 

Ped.  108 
Can- 
adian 
Beauty 
Marrow 
fat 

Ad- 

miral 

Arthur 

1919.. . 

1920.. . 

20.6 

11.5 

21.0 

15.8 

21.5 

16.5 

13.8 

14.2 

13.9 

7.2 

15.7 

6.0 

16.0 

8.1 

16.7 

12.7 

13.6 

20.5 

12.5 

10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


Peas  Need  Well-Drained  Land 

Peas  are  easily  damaged  by  standing  water.  Land  subject  to 
overflow  or  deficient  in  surface  drainage  should  be  avoided,  but 
wet  clay  soils  after  they  are  well  drained  are  very  satisfactory 
for  peas.  On  the  heavy  red  clay  soils  of  northern  and  eastern 
Wisconsin  excellent  results  are  obtained  by  plowing  in  lands 
from  25  to  35  feet  wide,  leaving  open  dead  furrows  to  carry 
away  the  surface  water.  Experiments  at  the  branch  stations 
have  clearly  shown  such  a practice  is  very  practical  and  pays 
well. 


FIG.  4>.— OPEN  DEAD  FURROWS  FOR  DRAINAGE 
Method  of  plowing  in  narrow  lands.  Cblby  loam  soil  at  Marshfield. 


Plow  Field  For  Peas  in  Fall 

Land  for  peas  should  be  plowed  in  ithe  fall  if  possible.  This 
is  particularly  necessary  on  heavy  clays  low  in  organic  matter. 
Fair  results  are  also  obtained  with  very  early  spring  plowing  of 
good  sod  land.  When  plowing  is  done  in  the  spring,  care  should 
be  used  to  get  the  soil  well-firmed  with  some  such  implement  as 
a roller  or  planker.  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  spring  plow- 
ing is  that  seeding  has  to  be  delayed  a week  or  more  to  permit 
the  freshly  plowed  land  to  properly  warm  up  and  weather. 

Peas  Need  a Good  Seed  Bed 

Peas  require  a deep,  well-prepared  seed  bed.  The  ground 
should  be  worked  to  a depth  of  at  least  5 inches.  Experiments 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


11 


with  peas  at  the  Ashland  branch  station  prove  that  it  is  not 
desirable  to  pulverize  heavy  clays  until  very  fine  for  there  is 
danger  of  the  land  baking  into  a hard  crust  when  heavy  rains 
follow  soon  after  seeding.  The  soil  should  be  of  a crumby,  not 
powdery,  texture.  On  the  other  hand  clods  and  large  lumps  are 
undesirable  because  they  interfere  with  the  mower  at  harvest 
time. 

The  ground  should  be  well  leveled  so  as  to  do  away  with  hol- 
lows and  prominent  ridges.  Stones,  roots,  and  trash  should  be 
hauled  off  the  field  immediately  after  seeding,  for  they  interfere 
with  the  use  of  machinery  at  harvest  time.  If  the  ground  is 
rather  lumpy  it  is  a good  plan  to  roll  it  after  the  peas  are  well 
up.  Rolling  should  not  be  done  when  the  ground  is  at  all  wet. 

Sow  Seed  Peas  Early 

Peas,  with  the  exception  of  the  wrinkled  kinds,  should  gener- 
ally be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work  well. 
Clay  soils  work  best  in  the  early  spring  before  the  mellowing 
effect  of  freezing  and  thawing  has  been  neutralized  by  heavy 
rains.  If  seeding  is  not  done  early  there  is  danger  of  rains 
delaying  seeding  operations.  At  the  Ashland  and  Superior  sta- 
tions peas  were  successfully  sown  from  March  31  to  May  21. 
The  season  and  not  the  calendar  should  be  the  guide.  Wrinkled 
peas  should  not  be  sown  before  May  1 unless  the  season  is  warm, 
for  if  cold,  wet  weather  should  follow  seeding  there  is  danger  of 
the  seed  rotting  in  the  ground. 

Sow  at  Uniform  Depth 

Peas  should  be  sown  at  a uniform  depth  if  they  are  to  ripen 
evenly.  Uniform  seeding  requires  that  the  ground  be  level  and 
well-fitted  to  a uniform  depth.  The  grain  disk  drill  is  best  for 
seeding  since  it  covers  all  seed  to  about  the  same  depth.  If 
neither  drill  nor  seeder  is  available  the  peas  may  be  sown  by 
hand  and  covered  by  going  over  once  only  with  disk,  spring 
tooth  harrow  or  cultivator.  A second  harrowing  will  uncover 
much  of  the  seed. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


Sow  Enough  Seed 

Size  of  seed,  time  of  planting,  soil  condition,  also  use  of  crop 
and  the  viability  of  the  seed  decide  the  rate  of  seeding.  The 
rates  for  grain  production  for  the  different  varieties  are : 

1.  Small  peas,  such  as  Golden  Vine,  Multiplier,  and  French 
June,  6 to  8 pecks  per  acre. 

2.  Medium-sized  peas,  including  Green  and  Scotch,  8 to  10 
pecks  per  acre. 


FIG.  5.— the;  grain  drill  is  best  for  sowing  peas 

This  implement  covers  all  peas  to  a uniform  depth. 


3.  Marrowfats,  12  to  14  pecks  per  acre. 

When  the  peas  are  sown  alone  for  hay  the  amount  of  seed 
used  should  be  increased  about  25  per  cent.  When  peas  are 
sown  with  oats  for  hay,  from  1 y2  to  2 bushels  of  peas  and  from 
1 to  iy2  bushels  of  oats  should  be  used  to  the  acre.  These  direc- 
tions have  been  worked  out  from  the  results  obtained  at  the 
branch  experiment  stations. 

The  rates  given  are  for  high-germinating  seed  sown  with  the 
grain  drill.  If  broad-casted,  the  amount  of  seed  should  be 
increased  about  one  peck  for  each  acre.  When  peas  are  sown 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


13 


on  poorly  fitted,  cloddy  land  more  seed  per  acre  is  required.  Late 
seeding  also  requires  more  seed,  because  the  peas  seldom  stool 
much  if  sown  late  in  the  season. 

The  high  prices  of  seed  peas  have  kept  many  growers  from 
sowing  enough  seed.  This  is  poor  economy,  for  if  a pea  stand  is 
thin,  weeds  develop  rapidly  and  prevent  a normal  growth  of  the 
pea  vines.  A good  pea  crop  must  occupy  all  the  ground. 

Depth  to  Sow  Peas 

On  loam  soils  peas  should  be  sown  to  a depth  of  3 inches.  On 
heavy  clay  soils  2 inches  is  deep  enough  unless  the  ground  is 
very  dry,  in  which  case  planting  should  be  deeper.  The  seed 
should  be  placed  well  down  in  moist  soil. 

On  the  rolling  type  of  red  clay  land,  unless  special  attention 
is  given  to  the  hard  knolls,  the  ground  may  be  fitted  too  shallow 
to  permit  a sufficiently  deep  planting. 

Harvest  Seed  Peas  With  Machinery 

Peas  are  easily  and  economically  harvested  with  machinery. 
The  ordinary  mower  equipped  with  lifting  guards  and  windrow- 
ing rods  is  used  for  harvesting  in  the  chief  pea-growing  sections. 
The  lifting  guards  raise  the  vines  so  that  they  can  be  cut  without 
cutting  the  pods.  The  windrowing  rods  serve  to  roll  the  pea 
vines  in  a windrow  well  out  of  the  way  of  the  team  when  it 
comes  back  on  the  next  round.  Such  an  attachment  costs  about 
$20. 

In  order  to  harvest  with  the  mower  the  crop  should  be  allowed 
to  mature  well  before  cutting,  as  the  vines  windrow  best  when 
dry.  Work  should  begin  after  the  dew  has  dried  from  the  vines. 

Where  the  seed  bed  was  properly  prepared  the  cost  of  har- 
vesting peas  is  not  greater  than  for  any  other  grain  crop.  One 
man  and  a team  can  do  all  the  work  since  there  is  no  shocking 
to  do. 

Moisture  Damages  Seed  Peas 

Care  should  be  taken,  especially  with  the  Scotch  and  Green 
varieties,  not  to  let  the  pods  remain  for  any  length  of  time  in 
contact  with  the  wet  ground.  The  damp  soil  dissolves  the  color- 
ing matter  in  the  peas,  thus  bleaching  them.  This  lowers  the 
market  value. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


PIG.  6.— HARVESTING  PEAS 


(1)  The  mower  with  windrowing  and  pea  lifting  attachments  saves  hand  labor  and 
harvest®  peas  quickly.  It  is  essential  where  fields  exceed  4 acres. 

(2)  Windrows  of  peas  left  after  using  method  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Peas  were  left  until 
dry  enough  to  haul. 

(3)  Peas  in  bunches  ready  to  load. 

(4)  Loading  peas. 

(5)  A well-made  load. 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


15 


In  sunny  weather  well-ripened  peas  may  be  hauled  to  the  barn 
a day  or  two  after  cutting.  In  case  of  rain  the  vines  should  be 
turned  as  soon  as  the  tops  of  the  windrows  are  dry.  When  the 
sun  shines  and  the  wind  blows  after  a rain  the  vines  dry  rapidly 
and  often  are  ready  to  haul  in  the  following  day. 

Just  before  hauling,  two  or  three  windrows  are  put  together 
without  cocking.  Loading  is  done  from  both  sides  if  the  wind 
permits.  The  dry  vines  should  be  stored  under  cover,  in  barn 
or  shed,  and  not  in  the  stack.  A board  roof  built  on  top  of  a 


FIG.  7.— GRAIN  THRESHER  USED  FOR  PEAS 
The  cylinder  must  be  run  at  a much  lower  rate  of  speed  than  for  oats  and  barley. 

rectangular  stack  finished  so  as  to  give  the  roof  the  proper  slope 
is  fairly  satisfactory.  The  practice  of  threshing  from  the  field 
is  not  recommended  in  Wisconsin  for  it  almost  invariably  results 
in  loss  in  both  quantity  and  quality  of  seed  on  account  of  rainy 
weather  which  necessitates  repeated  turning. 

Thresh  Peas  With  Grain  Separator 

Peas  are  successfully  threshed  with  the  grain  thresher  when  it 
is  properly  adjusted.  To  prevent  cracking  the  peas  the  cylinder 
must  be  run  at  a much  lower  rate  of  speed  than  for  oats  and 
barley.  This  is  done  by  using  a larger  pulley  to  drive  the  sep- 
arator cylinder.  A split  wood  or  steel  pulley  of  sufficiently  large 
bore  to  fit  on  the  regular  pulley  may  be  used  for  the  purpose. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


Peas  thresh  best  at  a speed  about  40  per  cent  lower  than  for 
small  grains. 

To  clean  the  peas  properly  it  is  also  necessary  to  use  a large 
pulley  for  driving  the  separating  mechanism  in  order  to  com- 
pensate for  the  reduced  speed  of  the  cylinder  shaft.  One  or  two 
rows  of  concave  teeth  and  steel  or  wood  blanks  are  used. 
Adjustments  should  be  made  according  to  the  peas.  A properly 
adjusted  separator  threshes  peas  clean  practically  without  crack- 
ing. 


fig.  8.— large  pulleys  used  in  pea  threshing 

These  are  substituted  for  the  regular  pulleys  used  in  grain  threshing.  The  blank 
concaves  a and  c may  he  used  in  place  of  the  regular  concaves,  such  as  b,  when 
necessary. 

Inoculation  of  Peas 

Peas  being  a legume  crop  cannot  attain  full  development 
unless  there  is  a supply  of  the  specific  nitrogen  fixing  bacteria 
in  the  soil.  This  may  be  lacking  entirely,  or  it  may  be  there 
because  closely  related  plants  such  as  wild  or  tame  vetches,  or 
so-called  wild  peas  grew  on  the  land  before  it  was  broken.  This 
condition  frequently  obtains  in  Upper  Wisconsin.  The  proper 
bacteria  may  have  also  been  introduced  by  a previously  grown 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


17 


pea  crop.  If,  however,  the  nodule  forming  or  nitrogen  fixing 
bacteria  are  not  known  to  be  there  they  should  be  supplied.  In 
order  to  test  out  the  need  of  inoculation,  tests  were  made  in 
1920,  on  virgin  soil,  (for  peas)  at  Ashland  and  Spooner;  on 
land  where  peas  grew  three  years  previously  at  Marshfield ; and 
on  virgin  land,  in  cooperation  with  a canning  company  near 
Sanborn,  Wisconsin. 

The  land  on  which  the  tests  were  made  were,  in  each  case, 
uniform  in  character.  In  each  instance  the  uninoculated  plots 
were  put  in  first.  The  cultures  for  inoculating  were  obtained 
from  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Bacteriology,  (for  cul- 
tures, address  Experiment  Station,  Madison)  and  were  applied 
strictly  according  to  directions.  Soil  used  for  inoculation  was 
taken  from  a well  inoculated  pea  field  on  which  peas  grew  in 
1919.  The  soil  was  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  seed. 

Table  VI. — Pea  Inoculation  Tests 

ASHLAND  BRANCH  STATION 


Plot  Number 

Yield  per 
plot  pounds 

Yield  per 
acre  pounds 

1 and  4— Culture  inoculation 

160 

1,333 

2 and  5— Soil  inoculation 

135 

1,125 

3 and  6 No  inoculation 

122 

1,016 

SPOONER  BRANCH  STATION 


Plot  Number 

Yield  per 
plot  pounds 

Yield  per 
acre  bushels 

1— Culture  inoculation 

10.5 

7.6 

4 Culture  inoculation 

12.5 

8.9 

2 Soil  inoculation 

14.0 

10.0 

5— Soil  inoculation 

11.5 

8.2 

3— No  inoculation 

12.5 

8.9 

6 No  inoculation 

11.0 

7.9 

MARSHFIELD  BRANCH  STATION 


Plot  Number 

Yield  per 
plot  pounds 

Yield  per 
acre  bushels 

1 and  4 No  inoculation 

26 

10.4 

2 and  5 Culture  inoculation 

26 

10,4 

3 and  6 Soil  inoculation 

24.5 

10.0 

18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


In  the  test  with  the  canning  company  one  acre  was  first 
planted  without  inoculation,  and  the  balance  of  the  field,  about 
10  acres,  culture  inoculated.  Proper  inoculation  was  insured. 
No  yields  were  taken,  but  a thorough  examination  of  the  crop 
failed  to  show  any  benefit  due  to  inoculation.  There  was  a 
thrifty  growth  in  each  case,  and  plenty  of  nodules  present  in 
the  pea  roots. 

In  the  test  at  the  Ashland  station  culture  inoculation  gave  the 
best  results;  at  Spooner,  soil  inoculation  gave  the  best  average, 
and  at  Marshfield,  the  same  was  true. 

While  these  results  are  not  sensational  they  show  the  benefit 
of  inoculation.  It  is  largely  a matter  of  insurance.  On  new 
land  especial^,  inoculation  seems  important 

Practical  Methods  For  Inoculating  Peas 

Two  methods  of  inoculation  are  followed.  One  is  by  the  use 
of  soil  from  a field  where  bacteria  were  produced  in  abundance. 
A little  of  the  soil  is  mixed  with  the  peas  just  before  planting. 
Enough  dirt  should  be  used  to  coat  all  seeds  with  it. 

The  other  method  is  by  treating  the  seed  with  a pure  culture. 
The  Department  of  Bacteriology  at  the  Experiment  Station, 
Madison,  supplies  enough  culture  to  inoculate  one  bushel  of  seed 
for  25  cents.  Directions  are  given  with  the  culture. 

Proper  inoculation  is  important  for  it  may  mean  the  differ- 
ence between  success  and  failure.  New  land  often  lacks  the 
proper  bacteria. 

Use  Manure  or  Fertilizer  if  Necessary 

On  heavy  clay  soils  low  in  humus  a light  top  dressing  of 
manure  is  often  beneficial.  If  much  mineral  matter  has  been 
removed  through  several  years  of  cropping,  this  deficiency  should 
also  be  supplied  by  a proper  fertilizer  since  peas  are  high  in 
mineral  matter. 


Peas  Fit  Wisconsin  Rotations 

Peas  are  admirably  adapted  for  growing  in  rotation  with 
small  grains,  cultivated  crops,  and  hay  or  pasture  crops.  An 
excellent  four-year  rotation  which  is  proving  particularly  well 
adapted  to  the  red  clays  of  northern  Wisconsin  is : small  grain, 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


19 


clover  for  hay  and  pasture,  cultivated  crops,  and  peas.  The  pea 
stubble  is  disked  and  fitted  for  grain  without  plowing.  Winter 
wheat  or  winter  rye  is  sown  immediately  after  the  peas  are 
removed.  The  growing  of  peas  after  a cultivated  crop  largely 
avoids  trouble  with  grass  and  weeds  in  the  pea  crop  and  in  the 
succeeding  grain  crop.  If  desired,  the  hay  crop  may  be  left  for 
two  years  instead  of  one,  making  a five-year  instead  of  a four- 
year  rotation. 

A second  rotation,  which  is  commonly  followed  in  eastern  Wis- 
consin, is;  clover;  mixed  hay;  peas;  cultivated  crops;  small 
grains  seeded  to  clover. 

The  first  rotation  has  the  advantage  of  saving  plowing  for 
winter  grain,  a very  desirable  feature  on  heavy  soils  which  are 
hard  to  plow  in  summer. 

At  the  Marshfield  station  rotation  studies  begun  in  1917  show 
clearly  the  need  of  proper  rotation  for  peas.  In  1920  peas  after 
peas  yielded  only  9 bushels  per  acre,  peas  after  corn,  12  bushels, 
and  peas  on  sod,  13.1  bushels.  At  the  Ashland  Station  root  rot 
severely  affected  the  pea  crop  where  only  a short  period  inter- 
vened between  successive  pea  crops.  Peas  after  peas,  and  peas 
following  peas  inside  of  three  years,  were  badly  affected ; where 
four  years  had  elapsed  between  successive  pea  crops  the  amount 
of  root  rot  was  very  small ; and  where  peas  had  not  been  grown 
previously  no  root  rot  developed. 

Peas  leave  the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for  a small  grain 
crop.  Reports  show  that  oats  grown  after  peas  gave  better 
returns  than  after  any  other  crop  tried.  If  properly  inoculated 
they  will  add  to  the  soil  in  one  season  a large  amount  of  both 
nitrogen  and  humus. 

Station  Tests  and  Improved  Varieties  of  Peas 

Since  1908  when  variety  tests  and  breeding  work  were  begun 
at  the  Ashland  branch  station,  several  hundred  strains  and 
varieties  from  various  sources  have  been  tested.  A few  of  the 
best  have  been  kept.  Table  VI  shows  yields  for  varieties  and 
strains  which  have  been  grown  since  1914  and  were  still  under 
test  in  1920,  and  for  two  varieties  which  have  been  grown  since 
1917  only. 

Most  of  the  varieties  retained  are  pure  line  strains.  They  are 
the  best  for  the  variety  they  represent.  New  varieties  have  been 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


FIG.  9.— ROTATIONS  WITH  PEAS' 

(l)  Peas  after  peas;  (2)  Peas  after  corn;  (3)  Peas  after  clover;  (4)  Wheat  after  wheat; 
(5)  Wheat  after  peas 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


21 


produced  by  crossing,  several  of  which  are  superior  to  the  par- 
ent plants,  but  since  these  have  not  been  grown  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  distribute  they  are  not  included  in  the  table.  In  a 
very  few  years  the  Experiment  Station  expects  to  have  enough 
seed  to  distribute  to  growers : 

The  yields  for  1916  and  1919  (Table  VI)  were  abnormally 


Table  VII. — Value  of  Pedigree  Strains 


Variety 

Green 

White  Mar- 
rowfat 

Small 

Yellow 

Scotch 

Bu.  per  acre 

Bu.  per  acre 

Bu.  per  acre 

Bu.  ppr  acre 

Common  stock 

37.3 

32.9 

33.6 

31.4 

Pure  line  stock  over  pedigree 

stock 

50.0 

36.5 

38.0 

50.0 

Increase  per  acre,  pedigree  over 

common 

12.7 

3.6 

4.4 

18.6 

Per  cent  of  increase 

34.0 

11.0 

14.0 

59.0 

Note:  Average  increase  for  different  varieties  is  80  per  cent. 


low,  due  to  excessive  rainfall  during  June  and  July.  In  1916  a 
drainage  ditch  above  the  plots  overflowed,  lettipg  a flood  of 
water  sweep  over  the  field.  For  this  reason  the  results  in  1916, 
while  comparable  to  some  extent  for  the  different  varieties,  do 
not  show  the  possible  yields.  Excluding  1916  and  including 
six  years  only  gives  a more  accurate  idea  of  the  possibilities  of 
pea  culture. 

A study  of  the  tests  shows  that  the  Golden  Vine,  which  belongs 
to  the  common  yellow  group,  makes  the  best  yield.  The  Multi- 
plier is  another  good  yielder.  These  varieties  are  good  stock 
peas  to  grow  for  hay,  silage  or  grain.  The  Pedigree  108  Green 
is  just  as  well  adapted  for  stock  feed  and  is,  besides,  one  of  the 
best  sellers  for  soup  peas.  For  these  reasons  the  Pedigree  Green 
is  preferable.  Plenty  of  good  seed  is  available. 

Pedigree  Scotch  No.  9175  and  the  Pedigree  Green  strains, 
the  standard  green  peas  of  eastern  Wisconsin,  are  the  next  high- 
est yielders.  They  are  high-class  varieties  suitable  for  human 
consumption  besides  being  useful  for  stock  feed,  as  hay,  ensil- 
age, or  grain.  The  Green  variety  is  three  or  four  days  earlier 
in  maturing  than  the  Scotch.  Tests  made  at  the  Hancock  and 
Spooner  stations  indicate  that  the  Green  variety  is  well  adapted 
to  light  soils.  The  Scotch  is  an  excellent  variety  for  the  most 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


favorable  pea-growing  sections,  and  is  especially  well  adapted 
to  clay  soils.  Ordinarily,  it  sells  for  a somewhat  higher  price 
than  the  Green. 

The  Marrowfat  is  another  group  of  high-priced  soup  peas. 
These  are  represented  by  Pedigree  strains  of  the  Potter,  Cana- 
dian Beauty,  and  Arthur  varieties.  The  Potter  averages  some- 
what higher  in  yield  than  the  Canadian  Beauty.  As  the  Arthur 
has  been  tested  for  only  three  seasons,  no  conclusions  as  to  yield 
are  justified.  The  Marrowfats  are  usually  quoted  somewhat 
higher  than  the  Green  and  Scotch  varieties.  Their  larger  size — 
which  makes  them  more  liable  to  cracking  in  threshing — coupled 
with  lower  average  yields  makes  them  less  desirable  for  the  aver- 
age grower. 


Varieties  Recommended 

The  Scotch  strains  are  recommended  for  heavy  soils 
for  a market  pea.  For  lighter  soil  types  the  Green  is 
best.  It  may  be  grown  for  feed  or  for  the  market.  The 
Marrowfats  are  suited  where  the  best  care  can  be  given. 
The  common  yellow  kinds  are  suited  for  stock  feed.  The 
Green  and  Golden  Vine  do  well  to  grow  with  oats  for 
hay  or  silage. 


Don ’t  Mix  Varieties 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  varieties  of  peas  free 
from  mixtures.  For  this  reason  growers  are  most  strongly  urged 
to  specialize  in  one  variety.  Communities  ought  to  make  a selec- 
tion and  then  stick  to  it.  This  is  necessary  to  keep  from  mixing 
varieties  at  threshing  time  and  to  enable  growers  to  ship  in  car- 
loads. Unless  one  farmer  alone  can  grow  600  to  700  bushels,  or 
is  located  near  a main  market,  he  cannot  afford  to  grow  a variety 
different  from  his  neighbors.  In  new  sections  especially  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  club  together  and  grow  one  kind,  and 
thus  be  enabled  to  ship  full  cars. 

The  Ashland  branch  station  has  started  several  farmers  in  the 
different  pea  sections  of  Wisconsin  to  growing  the  pedigree 
strains.  Farmers  desiring  such  seed  can  get  it  by  writing  to 


Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin 


23 


the  Experiment  Station  there.  In  some  cases  this  stock  can  be 
purchased  from  seedsmen.  There  is  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  Upper  Wisconsin  farmers  in  those  regions  where  peas  do 
well,  and  so  far  are  free  from  disease  and  insects,  to  engage  in 
seed  pea  production.  Growing  for  the  seed  market,  however, 
makes  it  still  more  necessary  if  the  community  is  to  specialize  on 
one  variety. 


Table  VI Variety  Test  With  Field  and  Soup  Peas  at  the  Ash- 

land Branch  Station  (1914-1920) 


Year 

Ped.  9.152 
Scotch 

Ped.  10775 
Multiplier 

Ped.  108 

Canadian 

Beauty 

Ped.  9175 
Scotch 

Ped.  108 
Potter 

Ped. 108 
Green 

Ped.  108 
Golden 
Vine 

Ped.  408 
Green 

23871 

1 Arthur 

103C/1 

Hybrid 

1914 

16.5 

19.8 

13.7 

16.0 

13.7 

16.0 

19.1 

15.3 

16.2 

1915 

21.0 

20.0 

20.3 

25.0 

17.3 

23.3 

24.7 

23.0 

22.3 

1916 

7.7 

8.8 

4.9 

6.3 

5.7 

5.3 

6.0 

7.7 

6.0 

1917 

26  4 

23.3 

22.3 

28.5 

22.3 

29.0 

31.3 

32.0 

30.0 

24.1 

28.0 

1918 

33.9 

35.7 

27.3 

39.7 

35.0 

43.3 

45.3 

28.7 

32.0 

35.3 

36.0 

1819 

9.8 

11.8 

10.6 

9.93 

11.06 

7.0 

10.4 

10.5 

7.0 

13.73 

12.07 

1920 

19.5 

22.2 

23.8 

18.5 

23.1 

17.2 

19.7 

18.2 

17.2 

23.4 

22.10 

Average  for  7 years 

19.1 

20.2 

19.0 

20.6 

18.4 

20  2 

22.4 

19.3 

18.7 

Average  for  6 years 

excluding  1916  — 

21.0 

22.1 

21.3 

22.9 

20.5 

22.6 

25.1 

21.3 

20.8 

Average  for  4 years 

24.1 

24.5 

Breeding  Work  With  Peas 

In  addition  to  the  pure  line  work,  new  varieties  have  been 
produced  by  crossing  different  types.  At  the  present  time  sev- 
eral hundred  selections  from  crosses  in  different  stages  of  breed- 
ing work  are  being  grown  at  the  Ashland  Station.  Seed  of 
some  of  these  varieties  is  available  in  sufficient  quantities  to  per- 
mit of  variety  tests,  and  preliminary  field  tests  with  farmers. 
Some  of  the  objects  sought  for  in  breeding  peas  are  (a)  short- 
ening the  growing  period  of  the  Scotch  and  Green  varieties;  (b) 
producing  varieties  with  shorter  straw,  (c)  producing  varieties 
with  the  pods  in  a cluster  at  the  top  of  the  vine,  and  (d)  pro- 
ducing peas  which  are  resistant  to  various  diseases. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  329 


A lack  of  pure  seed  is  one  of  the  great  drawbacks  to  develop- 
ment of  the  pea-growing  industry  in  Wisconsin.  A realization  of 
this  fact  prompted  the  breeding  work  at  the  branch  experiment 
stations  with  the  primaiy  object  of  purifying  the  Wisconsin 
standard  varieties,  such  as  the  Scotch,  Green,  Marrowfat,  and 
common  yellow.  At  the  present  time  pure  strains  of  different 
varieties  are  available  in  considerable  quantity  and  can  be 
obtained  by  growers.  Dealers  in  peas  are  anxious  to  get  stock 


FIG.  10.— DIFFERENCE  IN  GROWTH  HABIT  BETWEEN  TWO  SCOTCH  TYPES 

Arthur  vine  typo  of  Scotch  pea  (right)  and  ordinary  Scotch  (left).  The  first  is 
derived  from  a cross  between  Arthur  and  Scotch  peas. 

of  this  character ; hence,  farmers  who  will  grow  such  grains  are 
sure  of  better  prices  for  their  stock  than  for  common,  unpurified 
peas.  The  mixtures  ordinarily  found  in  peas  are  (1)  black, 
or  “horse”  peas  which  have  purple  blossoms,  (2)  green  peas  in 
yellow  varieties;  (3)  yellow  peas  in  green  varieties.  Small  seeds 
are  undesirable  in  seed  peas. 

The  breeding  work  has  done  one  other  important  thing,  that 
is,  improving  the  producing  power  of  the  pure  strains.  A com- 
parison of  the  yields  of  pedigree  strains  in  1911  with  the  unse- 
iected  strains  of  the  same  season  shows  marked  improvement  in 
yield  of  selected  strains. 


March,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

MADISON 


DIGEST 


Koot  crops  should  be  grown  on  many  Wisconsin  farms  where  live- 
stock is  kept.  They  supplement  silage  and  grain  feed  and  are  a 
mam  source  of  winter  succulence  on  small  farms  where  only  a few 
cows  are  kept  or  where  the  farmer  is  not  financially  able  to  build  a 
sil°-  Page  3 

Roots  cost  no  more  per  ton  than  corn  silage  on  the  heavy  soils  in 
upper  Wisconsin.  At  Ashland  roots  cost  $4.06  per  ton,  corn  silage 
$5.35  per  ton,  and  at.  Conrath  roots  cost  $2.52  per  ton  and  corn 
silage  $ 5 . 4'9  per  ton.  These  are  averages  for  three  years.  Page  4 

Rutabagas  cost  less  per  ton  to  produce  than  any  other  class  of  root 
crops.  This  was  proved  by  variety  tests  covering  several  years  and 
made  at  Ashland,  Superior,  Conrath  and  Marshfield.  Pages  5-11 

Roots  planted  in  drills  24  to  36  inches  apart  give  best  results.  The 
land  should  be  well  manured  and  well  fitted  before  planting. 

Pages  11-12 

Plant  roots  from  May  1 to  June  30.  Early  planting  gives  best 
results.  Rutabagas  and  turnips  may  be  sown  as  a catch  crop  on 
new  land  as  late  as  June  30  in  upper  Wisconsin  and  later  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  state.  Page  13 

Careful  thinning  is  essential  for  big  yields.  Distances  between 
plants  may  range  from  8 inches  for  carrots  to  12  inches  for  ruta- 
bagas. Page  14 

Clean  cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds  and  conserve  soil  moisture 
should  be  given  root  crops.  Page  15 


Store  roots  near  where  they  are  to  be  used  for  feeding.  Root  cel- 
lars may  be  built  of  stone,  hollow  tile,  concrete  or  timbers  covered 


with  other  material  to  prevent  freezing, 
the  field  may  be  of  service  temporarily. 


Well-covered  pits  built  in 
Pages  17-22 


Bulletin  330 


March,  1921 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

MADISON 


DIGEST 


Root  crops  should  be  grown  on  many  Wisconsin  farms  where  live- 
stock is  kept.  They  supplement  silage  and  grain  feed  and  are  a 
main  source  of  winter  succulence  on  small  farms  where  only  a few 
cows  are  kept  or  where  the  farmer  is  not  financially  able  to  build  a 
silo.  Page  3 


Roots  cost  no  more  per  ton  than  corn  silage  on  the  heavy  soils  in 
upper  Wisconsin.  At  Ashland  roots  cost  $4.06  per  ton,  corn  silage 
$5.35  per  ton,  and  at  Conrath  roots  cost  $2.52  per  ton  and  corn 
silage  $5.49  per  ton.  These  are  averages  for  three  years.  Page  4 

Rutabagas  cost  less  per  ton  to  produce  than  any  other  class  of  root 
crops.  This  was  proved  by  variety  tests  covering  several  years  and 
made  at  Ashland,  Superior,  Conrath  and  Marshfield.  Pages  5-11 

Roots  planted  in  drills  2 4 to  36  inches  apart  give  best  results.  The 
land  should  be  well  manured  and  well  fitted  before  planting. 

Pages  11-12 


Plant  roots  from  May  1 to  June  30.  Early  planting  gives  best 
results.  Rutabagas  and  turnips  may  be  sown  as  a catch  crop  on 
new  land  as  late  as  June  30  in  upper  Wiscpnsin  and  later  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  state.  Page  13 


Careful  thinning 

plants  may  range 
bagas. 


is  essential  for  big  yields.  Distances  between 
from  8 inches  for  carrots  to  12  inches  for  ruta- 

Page  14 


Clean  cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds  and  conserve  soil  moisture 
should  be  given  root  crops.  Page  lo 

Store  roots  near  where  they  are  to  be  used  for  feeding.  Root  cel- 
lars may  be  built  of  stone,  hollow  tile,  concrete  or  timbers  covered 
with  other  material  to  prevent  freezing.  Well-covered  pits  built  in 
the  field  may  be  of  service  temporarily.  Pages  17  2 2 


Profitable  Root  Crops 

E.  J.  Delwiche 

ROOT  crops  should  be  grown  more  extensively  in  Wisconsin. 
Many  sections  of  the  upper  part  of  the  state  are  especially 
adapted  to  their  culture.  Root  crops  are  of  especial  value 
on  farms  where  there  are  no  silos,  as  is  often  the  case  with  new 
settlers’  farms,  or  on  farms  where  not  enough  livestock  is  kept 
to  prevent  the  silage  from  spoiling.  In  sections  of  the  state 
where  corn  will  mature  sufficiently  for  silage  in  the  average 
season,  corn  silage  usually  furnishes  succulent  feed  at  consider- 
ably less  expense  than  do  roots.  However,  many  experienced 
stockmen  prefer  to  feed  roots  in  addition  to  silage  to  such  stock 
as  dairy  cows  on  official  test  or  animals  being  fitted  for  shows. 
Roots  may  also  be  fed  as  a substitute  for  grain  or  other  con- 
centrates thus  often  reducing  the  cost  of  feed. 

Roots  are  sometimes  desirable  to  fill  in  the  rotation  as  a cul- 
tivated crop,  especially  on  certain  heavy  soils  in  northern  Wis- 
consin which  are  not  very  well  adapted  to  corn  or  potatoes. 
On  such  land  root  crops  may  take  the  place  of  other  cultivated 
crops,  at  least  in  part,  thus  rounding  out  the  rotation. 

Roots  an  Economical  Crop  in  Upper  Wisconsin 

While  roots  are  commonly  a more  expensive  feed  than  corn 
silage  throughout  the  corn  belt,  they  are  economical  in  upper 
Wisconsin.  Comparative  costs  of  producing  roots  and  corn 
silage  have  been  worked  out  at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  and 
the  Rusk  County  Demonstration  Station  at  Conrath.  At  Ash- 
land the  experiments  were  made  on  Superior  red  clay,  one  of  the 
heaviest  types  of  soil  found  in  northern  Wisconsin.  At  Conrath 
the  trials  were  made  on  Kennan  silt  loam  which  is  typical  of  a 
great  part  of  central  Wisconsin.  In  this  study  a cost  accounting 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


was  kept  including  all  labor  from  plowing  to  filling  the  silo,  and 
slicing  the  roots  before  feeding.  This  test  was  made  three  years 
in  succession — in  1918,  1919,  and  1920.  The  cost  of  labor  was 
high — $2.75  a day  for  man,  and  $2.75  for  team  labor  for  1918 
and  1919,  and  $.40  an  hour  for  man  and  $.25  per  team  hour  for 
1920.  The  cost  of  slicing  roots  with  gas  engine  and  feed  cutter 
was  $.50  a ton.  This  amount  was  added  to  the  cost  per  ton. 

The  average  cost  of  a ton  of  rutabagas  over  three  years  at 
Ashland  was  $4.06  per  ton  and  at  Conrath  $2.52.  Corn  silage 
cost  $5.35  per  ton  at  Ashland,  and  $5.49  at  Conrath. 

The  yield  of  rutabagas  per  acre  and  cost  of  production  per 
acre  and  per  ton  for  ten  years  are  given  in  Table  I.  The  tests 
were  made  at  Superior  on  the  Douglas  County  Demonstration 
Station  on  red  clay  soil. 


Table  I. — Yield  and  Cost  of  Producing  Rutabagas  at  Douglas 
County  Demonstration  Station  1909  to  1919  Inclusive  (no  Roots 
Were  Grown  in  1917) 


Year 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

Cost  per  acre 

Cost  per  ton 

1909 

8.04 

$50.71 

$6.31 

1910 

9.95 

58.60 

5.88 

1911 

26.79 

39.10 

1.42 

1912 

10.22 

43.00 

4.20 

1913 

7.01 

47.72 

6.80 

1914 ; 

4.00 

26.54 

6.63 

1915 ! 

16.00 

32.27 

2.01 

1916 

8.00 

33.00 

4.12 

1918 

13.50 

46.12 

3.41 

1919 

14.10 

34.92 

2.47 

Average 

11.76 

41.20 

IT2 

Roots  Are  Excellent  Feed  For  Livestock 

The  growing  of  rutabagas  for  human  consumption  differs  only 
in  minor  details  from  the  methods  used  in  growing  them  for 
livestock.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  different  classes  of  roots 
in  comparison  with  corn  silage  are  given  in  Table  II. 


Profitable  Root  Crops 

E.  J.  Delwiche 

ROOT  crops  should  be  grown  more  extensively  in  Wisconsin. 
Many  sections  of  the  upper  part  of  the  state  are  especially 
adapted  to  their  culture.  Root  crops  are  of  especial  value 
on  farms  where  there  are  no  silos,  as  is  often  the  case  with  new 
settlers’  farms,  or  on  farms  where  not  enough  livestock  is  kept 
to  prevent  the  silage  from  spoiling.  In  sections  of  the  state 
where  corn  will  mature  sufficiently  for  silage  in  the  average 
season,  corn  silage  usually  furnishes  succulent  feed  at  consider- 
ably less  expense  than  do  roots.  However,  many  experienced 
stockmen  prefer  to  feed  roots  in  addition  to  silage  to  such  stock 
as  dairy  cows  on  official  test  or  animals  being  fitted  for  shows. 
Roots  may  also  be  fed  as  a substitute  for  grain  or  other  con- 
centrates thus  often  reducing  the  cost  of  feed. 

Roots  are  sometimes  desirable  to  fill  in  the  rotation  as  a cul- 
tivated crop,  especially  on  certain  heavy  soils  in  northern  Wis- 
consin which  are  not  very  well  adapted  to  corn  or  potatoes. 
On  such  land  root  crops  may  take  the  place  of  other  cultivated 
crops,  at  least  in  part,  thus  rounding  out  the  rotation. 

Roots  an  Economical  Crop  in  Upper  Wisconsin 

While  roots  are  commonly  a more  expensive  feed  than  corn 
silage  throughout  the  corn  belt,  they  are  economical  in  upper 
Wisconsin.  Comparative  costs  of  producing  roots  and  corn 
silage  have  been  worked  out  at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  and 
the  Rusk  County  Demonstration  Station  at  Conrath.  At  Ash- 
land the  experiments  were  made  on  Superior  red  clay,  one  of  the 
heaviest  types  of  soil  found  in  northern  Wisconsin.  At  Conrath 
the  trials  were  made  on  Kennan  silt  loam  which  is  typical  of  a 
great  part  of  central  Wisconsin.  In  this  study  a cost  accounting 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


was  kept  including  all  labor  from  plowing  to  filling  the  silo,  and 
slicing  the  roots  before  feeding.  This  test  was  made  three  years 
in  succession — in  1918,  1919,  and  1920.  The  cost  of  labor  was 
high — $2.75  a day  for  man,  and  $2.75  for  team  labor  for  1918 
and  1919,  and  $.40  an  hour  for  man  and  $.25  per  team  hour  for 
1920.  The  cost  of  slicing  roots  with  gas  engine  and  feed  cutter 
was  $.50  a ton.  This  amount  was  added  to  the  cost  per  ton. 

The  average  cost  of  a ton  of  rutabagas  over  three  years  at 
Ashland  was  $4.06  per  ton  and  at  Conrath  $2.52.  Corn  silage 
cost  $5.35  per  ton  at  Ashland,  and  $5.49  at  Conrath. 

The  yield  of  rutabagas  per  acre  and  cost  of  production  per 
acre  and  per  ton  for  ten  years  are  given  in  Table  I.  The  tests 
were  made  at  Superior  on  the  Douglas  County  Demonstration 
Station  on  red  clay  soil. 


Table  I. — Yield  and  Cost  of  Producing  Rutabagas  at  Douglas 
County  Demonstration  Station  1909  to  1919  Inclusive  (no  Roots 
Were  Grown  in  1917) 


Year 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

Cost  per  acre 

Cost  per  ton 

1909 

8.04 

$50.71 

$6.31 

1910 

9.95 

58.60 

5.88 

1911 

26.79 

39.10 

1.42 

1912 

10.22 

43.00 

4.20 

1913 

7.01 

47.72 

6.80 

1914 

4.00 

26.54 

6.63 

1915 

16.00 

32.27 

2.01 

1916 

8.00 

33.00 

4.12 

1918 

13.50 

46.12 

3.41 

1919 

14.10 

34.92 

2.47 

Average 

TL76~" 

4L20 

iJ2~ 

Roots  Are  Excellent  Feed  For  Livestock 

The  growing  of  rutabagas  for  human  consumption  differs  only 
in  minor  details  from  the  methods  used  in  growing  them  for 
livestock.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  different  classes  of  roots 
in  comparison  with  corn  silage  are  given  in  Table  II. 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


5 


Table  II Digestible  Nutrients  in  Different  Classes  of  Roots 

and  Corn  Silage.* 


Total  dry 
matter 
in  100  lbs. 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 

Nutri- 

tive 

ratio 

Crude 

protein 

Carbo- 

hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Artichokes 

Lbs. 

20.5 

Lbs. 
1 0 

Lbs. 

14.6 

Lbs_  1 
0.1 

Lbs. 

15.5 

1: 

14.8 

Mangels 

9.4 

0.8 

. 6 4 

0.1 

7.4 

8.2 

Rutabagas 

10.9 

1.0 

7.7 

0.3 

9.4 

8.4 

Turnips 

9 5 

1.0 

6.0 

0.2 

7.4 

6.4 

Carrots 

11.7 

0.9 

8.6 

0.2 

9.9 

10.0 

Sugar  beets 

16.4 

1.2 

12.6 

0.1 

14.0 

10.7 

Corn  silage,  well  matur- 
ed corn 

26.3 

1.1 

15.0 

0.7 

.7.7 

15.1 

Corn  silage,  immature 
corn 

21.0 

1.0 

11.4 

0.4 

13.3 

12.3 

Corn  silage  from  frosted 
corn 

25.3 

1.2 

13.7 

0.6 

16.3 

12.6 

^Selected  from  “Feeds  and  Feeding-”  Henry  and  Morrison 


The  table  shows  that  roots  are  rather  low  in  total  dry  matter. 
Compared  with  silage  made  from  fully  matured  corn,  rutabagas 
contain  only  53  per  cent  as  muck  dry  matter  as  the  former.  On 
the  other  hand,  rutabagas  contain  70  per  cent  as  much  dry  mat- 
ter as  immature  corn  silage.  Under  conditions  such  as  prevail 
at  Ashland  and  Conrath,  rutabagas  can  be  grown  more  profit- 
ably than  corn. 

Experiments  by  different  investigators  show  that  the  dry 
matter  in  roots  is  at  least  of  equal  value  to  the  dry  matter  in 
com  silage  and  equal  to  the  dry  matter  in  concentrates.  E.  S. 
Savage  of  Cornell  University  concluded  in  addition  that  roots 
may  be  fed  to  the  extent  of  replacing  one-half  of  the  dry  matter 
in  mill  feeds,  and  that  where  roots  can  be  grown  for  $4  per 
ton  they  can  replace  grain  and  other  concentrates  with  profit 
when  the  latter  costs  $60  per  ton. 

Rutabagas  Are  Best  For  Upper  Wisconsin 

Variety  tests  with  different  roots  have  been  made  at  Ashland, 
Superior,  Conrath,  Marshfield,  and  at  Polar,  Langlade  County. 
The  tests  at  Superior  have  been  the  most  comprehensive  from 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


the  standpoints  of  number  of  years  tried  and  the  different  classes 
of  roots  included  in  the  trials.  The  leading  varieties  of  mangels, 
rutabagas,  stock  carrots  and  turnips  have  been  included  in  the 
tests.  Only  the  most  promising  variety  of  each  kind  of  roots 
was  retained  for  four  jTears ; the  others  were  dropped. 

The  soil  on  which  the  work  at  Superior  was  carried  on  is 
typical  red  clay,  a type  not  especially  adapted  to  corn ; thus  the 


FIG.  1.— ROOT  CUTTER  RUN  BY  SMALL  GAS  ENGINE 
The  cost  of  slicing  roots  for  feeding  by  this  method  is  about  50  cents  a ton. 


need  of  a substitute  cultivated  crop  in  the  rotation  is  obvious. 
The  roots  were  planted  on  sod  to  which  a dressing  of  10  tons  of 
manure  per  acre  was  applied  after  the  land  was  plowed.  The 
manure  was  thoroughly  disked  in.  Planting  was  done  from  May 
5 to  May  25,  depending  on  the  season.  The  distance  between 
rows  was  36  inches.  Rutabagas  and  turnips  were  thinned  10  to 
12  inches  apart,  mangels  and  beets  8 to  10  inches,  and  stock  car- 
rots 7 to  9 inches.  The  test  was  begun  in  1909  and  carried 
through  for  four  years  with  both  rutabagas  and  turnips,  and 
three  years  with  stock  carrots.  Mangels  and  beets  were  dis- 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


i 

carded  after  two  years  because  of  the  high  cost  per  ton  to  pro- 
duce them.  See  Table  II.  The  heavy  clay  soil  on  which  the 
experiments  were  made  is  not  adapted  to  beets,  chiefly  because 
it  is  difficult  for  them  to  get  a stand  on  account  of  the  baking 
of  the  soil. 


FIG.  2.— ROOTS  OF  MANY  KINDS 

<1)  Shgar  beet  (2)  tankard  mangel  (3)  mammoth  red  mangel  (4)  rutabaga  (5)  yellow 

globe  mangel. 

Table  III  studied  in  connection  with  Table  II  points  clearly 
to  the  rutabaga  as  the  root  to  grow  on  our  heavy  red  clay  soils. 
Results  at  Ashland,  as  given  in  Table  IV,  and  the  experience  of 
farmers  working  under  similar  conditions,  confirm  this  conclu- 
sion. 

Rutabagas  produce  a stand  more  easily  than  mangels,  require 
less  seed,  endure  drought  and  wetness  better,  are  easier  to  dig, 
do  not  freeze  so  readily  in  the  fall,  keep  better  and  are  equal  at 
least  in  feeding  value.  Turnips  have  many  of  the  good  points 
of  rutabagas,  but  they  freeze  more  readily,  do  not  keep  so  late 
in  the  winter,  and  are  lower  in  total  digestible  nutrients. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


Table  III —Variety  Test  With  Roots  at  Superior 


Year 

Measure  of 
crop  value 

Monarch 

ruta- 

bagas 

Masto- 

don 

carrots 

Giant 

feeding 

sugar 

beet 

Mam- 

moth 

red 

mangel 

Yellow 

Belgian 

carrot 

Golden 

tankard 

mangel 

Yellow 

Aber- 

deen 

turnip 

Yield  in  tons 

8.04 

7.12 

. 

6.19 

3 23 

5.22 

5.85 

1909 

Cost  per  ton  . . . 

$6.31 

$8  59 

$7.12 

$8.19 

$15.70 

$9.71 

$8.66 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

9.93 

3.05 

6.81 

5.57 

4.96 

4.47 

5.82 

1910 

Cost  per  ton  . . . 

$3.88 

$19.21 

$8.60 

$10.52 

$11.81 

$13. 10 

$10.43 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

26.79 

12.08 

Failure 

' 

Failure 

Failure 

Failure 

28.49 

1911 

Cost  per  ton  ... 

$1.42 

$3.05 

Failure 

Failure 

Failure 

Failure 

$1.37 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

10.22  j 

| 

8.25 

1912 

Cost  per  ton  . . . 

$4.20 

$5.21 

Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

13.75 

7.01 

6.96* 

5.88* 

4.09 

4.84* 

12.10 

A verage. 

Cost  per  ton  . . . 

$4.48 

$10.28 

$7.86 

$9.35 

$13.75 

$6.40 

$6.41 

* Two-year  a verge. 


The  test  at  Ashland  was  on  red  clay  soil  similar  in  type  to 
that  at  Superior  though  not  quite  so  heavy.  Soil  treatment,  dis- 
tance of  planting,  and  thinning,  were  identical  to  the  Superior 
experiment. 


Table  IV. — Variety  Test  With  Roots  at  Ashland,  1913 


V ariety 

! Yield  in  tons 
per  acre 

Cost  per  acre 

' 

Monarch  rutabaga 

24  57 

i 

$1.74 

Ban°-holm  rutabagas 

21.00 

2.04 

M am  moth  long’  red  mangel 

17.49 

2.46 

Victoria  carrot 

14.06 

3.05 

Sugar  beets 

17.87 

2.40 

Mastodon  carrot, 

10.65 

4.03 

Golden  tankard  mangel 

21.37 

2.01 

Giant  feeding  sugar  beet 

14.4 

2.98 

ftia.nt,  F.e.kendorf  mangel 

14.4  j 

2.98 

Profitable  Root  Crops 


9 


FIG.  3.— A 20-TON  ROOT  CROP 


These  plants  were  grown  on  north  central  Wisconsin  loam  soil. 


Table  V. — Tests  With  Various  Hoots  at  Con  rath  Station 


Varieties 


Tons  yielded 
per  acre 


Hursts  monarch  rutabaga* 

Yellow  Aberdeen  turnip 

Sugar  beet 

Yellow  globe  mangel 

Imperial  golden  mangel 

Mammoth  long  red  mangel. 
Giant  Eckendorf  mangel  . . . 

Victoria  carrot 

Mastodon  carrot 

Giant  feeding  sugar  beet 

Hursts  monarch  rutabaga  . . 

Rutabagas 

Mangels 

Rutabagas 

Rutabagas 


35.0 
22.5 
25  6 

8.0 
9.14 
9 45 

10. 0 
20.4 
14  5 
21.8 
20.00 
10.0 
10  0 
20.0 
18  0 


1 


I 

) 

\ 


Year 


1912 


1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 


Five-year  average  for  rutabagas  was  23  tons 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


Three  variety  tests  on  representative  loam  soils  were  made  in 
central  Wisconsin.  One  was  made  on  Chelsea  loam  soil  in  1912 
on  a farm  near  Polar,  Wisconsin.  As  a result  of  this  trial  the 


fIG.  4.— SUPERIOR  RED  CLAY  SOIL  PRODUCES  GOOD  ROOT  CROPS 
Mangels  and  carrots  in  upper  picture,  rutabagas  in  lower. 

farmer  concluded  that  rutabagas  were  the  best  roots  to  grow, 
although  the  short  type  of  mangel  was  very  satisfactory. 

A variety  roots  test  was  made  at  the  demonstration  station 
at  Conrath  in  1912.  The  soil  there  is  well  drained  Kennan  silt 


Profitable  Hoot  Crops 


11 


loam.  Table  V gives  yields  in  tons  per  acre.  The  Monarch  va- 
riety of  rutabaga  gave  the  best  yield  per  acre  here  as  in  the 
other  tests  reported.  No  cost  accounting  was  kept. 

The  test  at  Marshfield  was  made  in  1913  on  Colby  silt  loam. 
Here,  as  in  every  other  test  mentioned,  the  Monarch  variety  of 
rutabaga  gave  the  highest  yield  per  acre.  It  was  also  the  easiest 
to  harvest  and  store. 


Table  VI. — Tests  With  Various  Root  Varieties  — Marshfield 
Branch  Station,  1913 


Varieties 

Tons  yielded 
per  acre 

Cost  per  ton 

Monarch  rutabaga 

24.0 

$2.08 

Long  red  mangel 

14.3 

3.50 

Golden  tankard  mangel 

18.25 

2.74 

Sugar  beet 

17.5 

2 86 

Aberdeen  turnip 

12.25 

22.0 

4.08 

Mastodon  carrot 

2.27 

All  these  tests  were  made  on  representative  loam  and  clay 
soils  found  in  northern  Wisconsin.  They  represent  the  general 
range  of  soils  formed  there  except  the  lighter  sandy  types,  and 
the  clays  and  loams  of  calcareous  nature.  The  tests  were  made 
under  conditions  prevailing  over  the  greater  part  of  the  north- 
ern section  of  the  state. 

The  rutabaga  is  the  most  profitable  root  to  grow,  as  these 
experiments  clearly  indicate.  The  Monarch  variety  is  especial- 
ly recommended,  because  of  its  high  yielding  power,  good  keep- 
ing qualities,  and  ease  of  harvesting. 

THE  CULTURE  OF  ROOT  CROPS 
Soil  and  Soil  Preparation 

Roots  may  be  grown  on  any  class  of  soil,  provided  it  is  prop- 
erly manured  and  thoroughly  cultivated.  However,  because  corn 
grows  better  on  the  lighter  soils,  roots — as  cultivated  crops — 
should  be  grown  more  extensively  on  heavy  soils.  One  of  the 
advantages  of  growing  root  crops  is  to  fill  in  the  need  of  culti- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


vatecl  crops  in  the  rotation.  Carrots  and  rutabagas  do  better 
than  mangels  and  beets  on  comparatively  light  soils.  Rutabagas 
give  best  returns  on  rather  strong  soil,  although  tenacious  clays 
are  not  desirable  for  the  deep  rooted  varieties.  Where  the  drain- 
age is  good,  rutabagas  .give  large  yields  on  very  heavy  clays. 

In  preparing  land  for  roots  it  is  necessary  to  manure  liberally 
for  heavy  yields.  Root  crops  demand  a soil  rich  in  nitrogen, 
potash,  and  humus.  The  latter  is  of  great  value  as  a means  of 
holding  moisture  in  the  soil.  A clover  sod  plowed  in  the  fall 
and  given  a dressing  of  from  8 to  12  loads  of  stable  manure  an 
acre  is  well  suited  for  all  root  crops.  The  amount  of  manure  to 
use  depends  on  its  quality  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  Manure 
containing  too  much  straw  should  be  avoided,  especially  if 
applied  late  in  the  season,  as  it  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  crop. 

The  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  early  fall  to  a good  depth, 
and  the  manure  applied  evenly  during  the  fall  and  winter 
months.  It  should  be  thoroughly  disked  as  soon  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked  well  in  early  spring.  This  disking  may  be  done 
a week  or  more  before  planting.  On  sandy  and  loam  soil  the 
plowing  may  be  left  until  spring,  except  in  the  case  of  tough 
sod.  Coarse  manure  should  not  be  used  in  spring  unless  it  is 
well  rotted.  The  object  should  be  to  have  an  abundant  supply 
of  humus  and  plant  food  in  the  soil. 

Good  drainage  is  absolutely  necessary  to  produce  large  crops 
of  roots.  Heavy  clays  which  hold  moisture  should  be  plowed 
with  frequent  open  furrows  in  narrow  lands  and  provision  made 
for  good  outlets.  Root  crops  never  recover  fully  if  checked  by 
excessive  moisture  early  in  the  season. 

Roots  require  very  thorough  preparation  of  the  ground  before 
seeding.  The'  soil  should  be  worked  to  a depth  of  from  5 to  6 
inches.  The  disc  harrow  is  a good  implement  to  prepare  land 
for  roots.  All  large  clods  must  be  broken  and  the  soil  made  fine 
and  mellow.  After  disking  thoroughly,  follow  with  a planker 
and  a spike  tooth  harrow.  The  ground,  as  a rule,  should  be  made 
as  mellow  as  the  proverbial  onion  bed.  On  sandy  and  loamy 
soils  there  is  little  danger  of  making  the  ground  too  fine,  but 
with  clay  soil  care  should  be  taken  not  to  pulverize  too  much  for 
if  heavy  rains  come  before  the  plants  are  up,  a crust  is  likely  to 
form  and  prevent  the  plantlets  from  breaking  through  the 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


13 


ground.  Such  soils  should  be  thoroughly  worked  so  as  to  dis- 
tribute plant  food,  and  to  render  them  mellow  and  porous  with- 
out creating  undue  fineness  of  tilth. 

Best  Time  to  Plant  Roots 

The  time  for  planting  roots  varies  with  seasons,  soils  and 
localities.  Mangels  and  carrots  should  be  planted  rather  early. 
If  the  ground  is  in  condition 
to  get  a good  tilth,  they 
shuuld  be  planted  as  soon  as 
danger  from  killing  frost  is 
over.  For  the  northern  half 
of  the  state  this  will  be 
from  May  5 to  25.  A light 
frost  after  the  plants  are 
up  will  do  little  damage. 

The  dates  for  planting  ru- 
tabagas can  be  extended  to 
June  5. 

On  heavy  soils  in  a wet  and  cold  spring  there  is  a possibility 
of  the  seed  rotting  in  the  ground  if  planted  very  early.  On  warm, 
sandy  soils  there  is  little  danger  from  this  source.  For  catch 
crops,  turnips  and  rutabagas  may  be  sown  as  late  as  July  1.  In 
dry  seasons  the  earliest  planting  usually  does  best.  It  is  better 
in  any  event  to  delay  planting  root  crops  for  a few  days  or  even 
weeks  rather  than  to  plant  when  the  ground  is  wet,  cold,  and  in 
poor  working  condition. 

How  to  Plant  Roots 

Root  crops  may  be  planted  by  hand  or  with  hand  or  horse  seed 
drill.  Planting  by  hand  is  a laborious  method  and  is  not  prac- 
ticable except  for  small  patches. 

Some  types  of  grain  drills  can  be  set  so  as  to  drill  root  seeds 
very  evenly,  even  rutabagas  and  turnips.  The  seed  is  placed  in 
the  proper  seed  boxes  so  as  to  sovr  at  the  right  distance  between 
the  rows.  With  small  seeds,  such  as  rutabagas  and  turnips, 
sow  as  lightly  as  the  machine  will  permit. 

Broadcasting  rutabagas  is  often  practiced  on  land  which  does 
not  admit  of  cultivation.  Results  are  not  nearly  so  sure  as  with 


FIG.  5.— A GOOD  HAND  PLANTER 

This  drill  is  suitable  for  planting  fields  of  five 
acres  or  less  of  root  crops. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


drilling,  since  cultivation  to  save  moisture  and  kill  weeds  is  im- 
possible. On  newly  cleared  brush  land,  rutabagas  and  turnips 
are  often  sown  between  the  stumps  without  plowing.  The 
ground  is  first  harrowed  with  spring  tooth  or  disk  and  the  seed 
broadcasted  as  thinly  as  possible.  This  method  should  be 
used  only  where  cultivation  is  impossible.  If  the  ground  is 
weed}'  or  the  season  proves  a dry  one,  only  a light  crop  of  in- 
ferior quality  results. 

Distance  Between  Rows 

Rows  may  be  from  18  to  36  inches  apart.  Where  cultivation 
after  planting  is  to  be  done  by  hand  the  distance  should  not 
exceed  24  inches,  for  a larger  yield  per  acre  will  be  secured  than 
by  planting  at  a greater  distance  between  rows.  For  horse  cul- 
tivation the  rows  must  be  straight  and  an  even  distance  apart. 
About  33  inches  is  probably  a safer  width  at  which  to  plant. 
At  this  distance,  with  a perfect  stand  of  roots  12  inches  apart  in 
a row  and  roots  averaging  four  pounds  each,  the  yield  would  be 
31  tons  per  acre.  With  a stand  of  70  per  cent  the  yield  would 
be  over  21  tons  per  acre.  These  figures  show  that  heavy  yields 
are  possible  at  33  inches  between  rows  provided  the  stand  is  good. 

Depth  of  Planting 

The  depth  of  planting  is  of  considerable  importance.  On  light 
soils  mangels  may  be  planted  to  1 inch  as  maximum  depth; 
34  of  an  inch  is  approximately  the  maximum  depth 
for  loam  soils,  and  on  heavy  clays  not  over  % inch.  These 
depths  are  given  on  the  basis  that  the  seed  bed  is  fairly  moist 
and  uniform  in  tilth.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry  it  may  be  necessary 
to  plant  deeper.  Rutabagas  should  be  covered  about  as  deep  as 
mangels,  and  carrots  even  less.  As  a rule,  shallow  planting  gives 
the  greatest  percentage  of  germination  provided  the  seeds  are 
covered  and  in  contact  with  moist  soil. 

Plant  Good  Seed  and  Enough  of  It 

Th  amount  of  seed  planted  should  be  sufficient  to  give  a good 
stand.  It  should  be  tested  for  germination,  and  if  below  75 
per  cent  should  be  rejected.  It  is  better  to  be  liberal  with  seed 
than  to  risk  getting  a poor  stand.  The  following  amounts  of 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


15 


seed  per  acre  are  advisable ; Mangels,  3 to  4 pounds ; carrots,  1 to 
2 pounds;  turnips  and  rutabagas  1 to  1^2  pounds.  These 
amounts  are  for  roots  planted  in  drills.  Rutabagas  should  be 
sown  somewhat  thicker  than  turnips  as  the  seed  is  larger. 

Unless  the  seed  is  known  to  be  of  high  quality  and  well  dis- 
tributed when  sown,  growers  should  use  from  20  to  25  per  cent 
more  seed  than  the  largest  amount  above  given.  The  cost  of 
seed  is  rather  insignificant  when  compared  with  other  items  in 
raising  roots ; therefore,  it  pays  to  sow  enough  seed  to  insure  a 
good  stand. 

Careful  Thinning  Essential  to  Large  Yields 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  up  and  have  made  four  or  five 
true  leaves,  roots  should  be  promptly  thinned  to  the  proper  dis- 
tance in  the  row.  Lower  yields  result  when  thinning  is  delayed 
until  the  plants  are  too  large.  Before  thinning  it  is  a good  plan 
to  “bunch”  with  the  hoe,  that  is,  cut  plants  out  leaving  bunches 
to  be  thinned  to  one  plant  at  the  right  distances.  This  bunching 
should  be  done  carefully,  since  it  determines  the  distances  that 
will  be  left  between  plants.  In  thinning,  leave  only  one  plant 
in  each  place  for  if  two  or  more  are  left  together  only  small  and 
inferior  roots  will  develop.  It  is  a good  plan  to  go  over  the 
ground  a second  time  two  or  three  weeks  after  thinning  and 
pull  out  all  surplus  plants.  Leave  only  the  most  vigorous  and 
thrifty  plants  even  if  doing  so  means  that  plants  will  be  left  in 
uneven  distances  apart  in  the  rows. 

Stock  carrots  should  be  thinned  to  8 or  9 inches  apart  in  the 
rows  and  mangels,  rutabagas  and  turnips  10  to  12  inches.  This 
applies  to  roots  intended  for  stock  feeding.  When  grown  for 
market,  rutabagas  and  turnips  should  be  thinned  about  8 inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  distances  given  are  on  the  basis  of  rows, 
30  inches  apart.  If  the  rows  are  farther  apart  the  distance 
between  plants  should  be  somewhat  less,  if  the  rows  are  closer 
the  plants  should  be  more  widely  separated.  Proper  thinning  is 
essential  to  success  in  growing  root  crops. 

Roots  Require  Thorough  After  Cultivation 

Frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  is  necessary  to  grow  crops 
of  roots.  Cultivation  is  needed  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  con- 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


5.  For  horse 
a walking  cul- 


serve  moisture  in  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen 
plainly  the  first  cultivation  should  be  given.  Immediately  after 
thinning  cultivate  again  very  thoroughly,  being  careful  not  to 
throw  soil  on  or  against  the  plants.  Better  roots  are  grown  if 
the  soil  is  drawn  away  from  the  roots  in  cultivation  rather  than 
toward  them. 

Cultivation  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  to  main- 
tain a flaky  dust  mulch,  and  keep  down  all  the  weeds.  Cultiva- 
tion should  be  shallow,  except  the  first  two  times  when  it  may 
be  fairly  deep.  Once  or  twice  during  the  season  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  go  over  the  field  with  hoes  in  order  to  stir  the  soil  and 
kill  weeds  between  plants  in  the  rows. 

The  styles  of  cultivators  in  use  vary  considerably.  Figure  6 
shows  a good  hand  cultivator.  It  can  be  purchased  as  a combi- 
nation with  the  drill  shown 
in  Figure 
cultivation, 

tivator  or  the  ordinary 
sulky  cultivator  used  for 
corn  and  potatoes  may  be 
used  with  good  advantage 
to  cultivate  root  crops 
fields.  The  special  sugar 
beet  cultivator  is  also  well 
adapted  to  cultivate  all 
roots.  It  is  difficult  to  state 
definitely  wdien  cultivation 
should  cease,  because  much  depends  on  the  season  and  the  num- 
ber of  weed  seeds  in  the  ground.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  the 
ground  free  from  weeds  during  the  entire  season.  In  ordinary 
seasons  cultivation  should  continue  at  intervals  until  the  mid- 
dle of  August. 

Harvesting  the  Root  Crop 

Root  crops,  especially  rutabagas  and  turnips,  will  stand  light 
frosts  without  injury.  Such  varieties  of  mangels  as  grow  largely 
out  of  the  ground  are  likely  to  have  their  keeping  qualities 
impaired  if  exposed  to  severe  freezing.  For  most  sections  of 
northern  Wisconsin,  mangels  should  be  harvested  and  covered 
about  October  1.  This  applies  also  to  stock  carrots.  Rutabagas 


pig.  6.— a good  type  of  hand 
cultivator 

This  kind  is  especially  effective  for  use  with 
root  crops.  It  may  be  had  with  a drill  at- 
tachment such  as  is  shown  in  figure  5. 


Profitable  Hoot  Crops 


17 


and  turnips  will  stand  more  frost  so  they  need  not  be  pulled  so  > 
early.  They  should  be  harvested  before  the  middle  of  October, 
however. 

In  harvesting,  from  two  to  four  rows  usually  are  thrown  in  a 
windrow  from  which  the  roots  are  loaded  on  a wagon  and  hauled 
to  a root  cellar  or  pit.  The  roots  are  knocked  together  so  as  to 
shake  the  soil  from  them.  Still  more  dirt  is  loosened  in  throw- 
ing the  roots  into  the  wagon.  The  unloading  slide  or  chute 
should  have  a slatted  bottom  so  the  loose  dirt  can  be  sieved  as 
the  roots  roll  into  the  bin. 

Topping  may  be  done  either  before  or  after  pulling.  The 
quickest  method  to  top  roots,  especially  rutabagas,  is  with  a 
sharp  hoe.  This  is  done  before  the  roots  are  pulled.  After  top- 
ping, loosen  the  roots  with  a beet  lifter,  subsoiler,  plow,  or  long- 
bladed  hoe.  After  they  are  loosened  the  roots  are  picked  up  and 
thrown  directly  into  the  wagon  box. 

About  45  hours  of  man  labor  and  10  hours  of  team  labor  were 
used  at  Ashland  in  1919  to  harvest  one  acre  of  rutabagas  and 
store  them  in  the  cellar.  This  was  on  red  clay  soil.  The  roots 
were  topped  with  the  hoe,  loosened  with  a subsoiler,  loaded  di- 
rectly into  the  wagon  and  hauled  to  the  root  cellar. 

In  harvesting  carrots  and  mangels  greater  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  bruise  the  roots  than  is  necessary  with  rutabagas  and 
turnips. 

When  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  well,  the  potato  digger  is 
an  efficient  machine  for  digging  rutabagas  and  turnips.  After 
the  roots  are  topped,  the  digger  is  run  under  the  rows  so  it  will 
just  cut  the  slender  tap-root,  without  cutting  in  the  fleshy  part 
of  the  roots.  The  rutabagas  are  then  picked  up  and  hauled  away. 

Storage  For  Roots 

The  best  place  to  store  roots  is  in  a root  cellar  near  where  they 
are  to  be  used  for  feeding.  Such  a cellar  may  be  a part  of  a 
barn  or  basement,  or  it  may  be  built  conveniently  near  the 
stock  barn.  In  most  places  the  root  house  can  be  built  most  eco- 
nomically of  concrete.  Ordinarily,  lime  or  cement  is  the  only 
material  that  has  to  be  purchased.  Stone,  gravel  and  sand  are 
usually  available  near  most  farms. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


FIG.  7.— A WELL  PROTECTED  AND  PERMANENT  ROOT  CELLAR 

The  entrance  and  outside  view  are  shown  in  the  upper  picture  while  the  inside  view 
is  shown  in  the  lower.  Note  heavy  pillars  and  girders  to  support  roof.  Built  of 
reinforced  concrete. 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


19 


While  the  temperature  in  a root  house  should  never  fall  to  the 
freezing  point,  it  must  be  low  for  the  best  results  in  keeping 
roots.  Where  possible,  the  root  cellar  should  be  built  in  a hill- 
side so  that  only  a small  portion  of  the  walls  are  directly  exposed 
to  the  elements.  Where  convenient,  a hay  or  straw  shed  should 
be  built  over  the  cellar  as  a protection  against  frost.  An  air 
space  should  be  provided  in  all  outside  walls. 

A cheap  but  useful  root  cellar  may  be  built  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 9.  A shows  the  general  plan  of  the  frame  work  to  support 
the  roof.  B shows  a cross  section  of  the  structure.  C gives  a 


S Trap  door  for  a tor/rg- 


F7G.  8.— CROSS'  SECTION  OF  ROOT  CELLAR  BUILT  UNDER  DRIVEWAY 

Note  trap  door  used  for  unloading  roots.  Fig.  11  shows  the  outside  view  of  this 

cellar. 


general  idea  of  the  structure  from  the  outside.  The  frame 
work  is  made  of  posts  or  poles,  preferably  of  tamarack 
or  cedar.  These  need  not  be  of  uniform  size,  but 
should  be  of  sound  wood.  A layer  of  brush,  old  lumber,  or 
slabs  is  laid  at  right  angles  with  the  rafters  and  on  top  of  this 
a layer  of  straw  or  marsh  hay.  Then  a layer  of  soil  about  6 
inches  thick  is  put  on  and  another  layer  of  straw  or  marsh  hay 
followed  by  a second  layer  of  soil.  Before  winter,  brush  or  corn 
stalks  may  be  thrown  on  top  of  the  whole  to  hold  the  snow.  A 
double  door  should  be  provided.  A well  drained  spot  of  land 
should  be  selected  and  provision  made  to  keep  out  water  from 
melting  snow.  Such  a root  house  will  do  for  a few  years  only. 

When  no  cellar  is  available,  roots  may  be  stored  in  pits.  For 
fall  and  early  winter  feeding,  they  need  not  be  covered  to  any 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


A.  Frame  built  of  tamarack  or  cedar  poles. 


B.  Cross  section  showing  covering. 


C.  Outside  view — note  double  door. 


FIG.  9.— A TEMPORARY  ROOT  HOUSE 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


21 


great  depth.  The  roots  are  heaped  in  a cone-shaped  pile  about  4 
feet  in  diameter,  on  a bed  of  clean  straw,  and  covered  with  a 
2-inch  layer  of  long  straw.  Clean  rye  straw  is  preferable.  The 
straw  at  the  peak  of  the  pile  is  made  to  form  a chimney — 5 or  6 
inches  in  diameter — for  ventilation.  Soil  is  thrown  on  the  pile 
to  a depth  of  6 inches.  The  roots  are  piled  as  high  as  possible  so 
as  to  shed  water.  When  the  roots  are  wanted  for  feeding,  the 
whole  pit  is  taken  into  the  barn  at  once.  For  early  winter  feed- 
ing the  layer  of  dirt  should  be  thicker  and  a covering  of  straw 
or  horse  manure  should  be  placed  over  the  whole  pile. 


ITG.  10.— A WELL  PROTECTED  ROOT  PIT  TO  REMAIN  OVER  WINTER 

May  be  opened  in  winter  When  entire  contents  must  be  removed  to  bam  to  be  kept 
there  until  all  is  fed. 


Figure  10  illustrates  a pit  intended  to  remain  over  winter. 
It  provides  for  two  layers  of  straw  and  two  layers  of  soil.  A 
ventilator  made  of  4-inch  boards  is  placed  at  the  peak.  When 
severe  freezing  weather  sets  in  the  ventilator  is  stuffed  tightly 
with  fine  hay.  Roots  will  keep  without  freezing  even  in  the 
coldest  winters  in  such  a pit.  The  piles  also  may  be  made 
oblong  instead  of  conical  in  shape,  retaining  the  gable  form. 
While  pits  do  very  well  so  far  as  keeping  roots  is  concerned,  it 
must  be  understood  that  they  are  but  makeshifts  at  best.  A 
root  house  which  is  accessible  at  all  times  is  much  more  satis- 
factory and  more  economical  in  the  end. 

Special  Methods  For  Poorly  Drained  Lands 

On  heavy  clay  soils  where  drainage  is  not  good,  root  crops  are 
Jikely  to  suffer  in  wet  seasons.  Where  mangels  and  other  crops 
were  planted  on  low  ridges  they  were  found  to  grow  faster  and 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


to  produce  larger  returns  than  if  grown  on  level  ground.  A 
shovel  plow  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  was  used  for  ridging  up  the 
land.  The  plow  is  run  very  shallow  and  the  field  is  marked  at 
the  desired  distances  before  ridging  up  in  order  to  insure 
straight  rows.  The  ridging  must  be  done  when  the  ground  is 


FIG.  11.— OUTSIDE  VIEW  OF  ROOT  CELLAR  BUILT  UNDER  DRIVEWAY 

It  extends  inside  the  barn  under  the  driveway  where  the  trap  door  for  unloading 

roots  is  located. 


dry  and  well  pulverized.  The  tops  of  the  ridges  are  then  made 
smooth  with  planker  and  smoothing  harrow.  A plank  9 feet 
long,  10  or  12  inches  wide  and  3 inches  thick  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose  by  attaching  a chain  to  it  for  hitching. 

These  ridges  must  be 
made  smooth  and  level  so 
as  to  enable  the  seed  drill 
to  sow  the  seed  at  a uni- 
form depth  and  distance 
apart.  All  the  troughs  be- 
tween ridges  should  be 
connected  to  cross  ditches 
in  which  surface  water  is 
discharged  and  carried 
away.  Cultivation  during  the  growing  season  gradually  re- 
duces the  height  of  the  ridge  until  at  the  end  of  the  season  it 
is  almost  level.  This  method  is  recommended  for  level  clay 
land  having  poor  drainage. 


FIG.  12.— SHOVEL  PLOW  FITTED  WITH 
WINGS 

This  is  useful  for  ridging  up  land  for  certain 
types  of  root  culture. 


Profitable  Root  Crops 


21 


great  depth.  The  roots  are  heaped  in  a cone-shaped  pile  about  4 
feet  in  diameter,  on  a bed  of  clean  straw,  and  covered  with  a 
2-inch  layer  of  long  straw.  Clean  rye  straw  is  preferable.  The 
straw  at  the  peak  of  the  pile  is  made  to  form  a chimney — 5 or  6 
inches  in  diameter — for  ventilation.  Soil  is  thrown  on  the  pile 
to  a depth  of  6 inches.  The  roots  are  piled  as  high  as  possible  so 
as  to  shed  water.  When  the  roots  are  wanted  for  feeding,  the 
whole  pit  is  taken  into  the  barn  at  once.  For  early  winter  feed- 
ing the  layer  of  dirt  should  be  thicker  and  a covering  of  straw 
or  horse  manure  should  be  placed  over  the  whole  pile. 


FIG.  10.— A WELL  PROTECTED  ROOT  PIT  TO  REMAIN  OVER  WINTER 

May  be  opened  in  winter  when  entire  contents  must  be  removed  to  barn  to  be  kept 
there  until  all  is  fed. 

Figure  10  illustrates  a pit  intended  to  remain  over  winter. 
It  provides  for  two  layers  of  straw  and  two  layers  of  soil.  A 
ventilator  made  of  4-inch  boards  is  placed  at  the  peak.  When 
severe  freezing  weather  sets  in  the  ventilator  is  stuffed  tightly 
with  fine  hay.  Roots  will  keep  without  freezing  even  in  the 
coldest  winters  in  such  a pit.  The  piles  also  may  be  made 
oblong  instead  of  conical  in  shape,  retaining  the  gable  form. 
While  pits  do  very  well  so  far  as  keeping  roots  is  concerned,  it 
must  be  understood  that  they  are  but  makeshifts  at  best.  A 
root  house  which  is  accessible  at  all  times  is  much  more  satis- 
factory and  more  economical  in  the  end. 

Special  Methods  For  Poorly  Drained  Lands 

On  heavy  clay  soils  where  drainage  is  not  good,  root  crops  are 
Jikely  to  suffer  in  wet  seasons.  Where  mangels  and  other  crops 
were  planted  on  low  ridges  they  were  found  to  grow  faster  and 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  330 


to  produce  larger  returns  than  if  grown  on  level  ground.  A 
shovel  plow  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  was  used  for  ridging  up  the 
land.  The  plow  is  run  very  shallow  and  the  field  is  marked  at 
the  desired  distances  before  ridging  up  in  order  to  insure 
straight  rows.  The  ridging  must  be  done  when  the  ground  is 


f : 

I f 

1 

' ””  i r* ; 

* 

pig.  ii.— outside  view  or  root  cellar  built1  under  driveway 

It  extends  inside  the  barn  under  the  driveway  where  the  trap  door  for  unloading 

roots  is  located. 


dry  and  well  pulverized.  The  tops  of  the  ridges  are  then  made 
smooth  with  planker  and  smoothing  harrow.  A plank  9 feet 
long,  10  or  12  inches  wide  and  3 inches  thick  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose  by  attaching  a chain  to  it  for  hitching. 

These  ridges  must  be 
made  smooth  and  level  so 
as  to  enable  the  seed  drill 
to  sow  the  seed  at  a uni- 
form depth  and  distance 
apart.  All  the  troughs  be- 
tween * ridges  should  be 
connected  to  cross  ditches 
in  which  surface  water  is 
discharged  and  carried 
away.  Cultivation  during  the  growing  season  gradually  re- 
duces the  height  of  the  ridge  until  at  the  end  of  the  season  it 
is  almost  level.  This  method  is  recommended  for  level  clay 
land  having  poor  drainage. 


FIG.  12  — SHOVEL  PLOW  PITTED  WITH 
WINGS 

This  is  useful  for  ridging  up  land  for  certain 
types  of  root  culture. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


[’he  President  of  the  University  J.  a.  James,  Asst.  Dean. 

J.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director  K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 

?.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Station 


V.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 


l.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
\ A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
E Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
i.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

. G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
’.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
V.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

. G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
7.  J.  Geib,  Soils 

M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Graber,  Agronomy 
1.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 
. G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 

N.  Harmer,  Soils 

B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 
1.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
. S.  Hean,  Librarian 

. H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
..  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Jour- 
nalism 

..  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 
. C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Husbandry 
. A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
. G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
. Johnson,  Horticulture 
1.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
. W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
. Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
!.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 
. D.  Leith,  Agronomy 
. W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
. Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
bby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Economics 
. G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
..  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

• B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
. B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 
■ L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
riffith  Richards,  Soils 
..  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
L H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
- Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 


H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughn,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Marguerite  Da-vis,  Home  Economics 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

1 I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
F.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


■ J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology 

R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 

N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 

O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 
A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

Oscar  Magistad,  Soils 

R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 

N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

Meta  Schroeder,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
J.  H.  VerHulst,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


he  President  of  the  University  J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean. 

. L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director  K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 

B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Station 


. A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 


S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

. D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
. J.  Geib,  Soils 

M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Graber,  Agronomy 
J.  Graul,  Soils 

B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 

G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 

N.  Harmer,  Soils 

B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
S.  Hean,  Librarian 

H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics  — ■ 
W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Jour- 
nalism 

S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Husbandry 
A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 

G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 

Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

;by  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Economics 
G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 

A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
iffith  Richards,  Soils 

H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 

L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 


H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughn,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


IT.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

f.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics  •' 

Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  J ournalism 
E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
FS.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


| J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology 

R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 

N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 

O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

0.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 
A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 

1.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 
Oscar  Magistad,  Soils 

R O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Meta  Schroeder,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 
W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
J.  H.  VerHulst,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN  / . 


GL* 

f1fk>  ” 

Bulletin  331 


April,  1921 


DIGEST 


Potato  scab  is  widespread  in  Wisconsin.  It  injures  the  appearance 
of  potatoes  for  the  table  and  reduces  the  quality  of  seed  stock. 

Pages  3-5 

Corrosive  sublimate  seed  treatment  is  one  of  the  important  ways 
of  controlling  potato  scab.  The  tubers  selected  for  seed  should  be 
soaked  in  a 1-1000  solution  for  iy2  hours  while  dormant  and  before 
cutting.  Pages  6-7  and  10-19 

Formaldehyde  seed  treatment  is  also  used  with  some  success. 

Page  7 

Other  helps  in  scab  control  are  the  selection  of  scab-free  seed,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  selection  of  scab-free  soil,  and  absence  of  h§avy  appli- 
cations of  lime,  ashes,  or  fresh  manure  just  previous  to  planting. 

Pages  8-10  and  22-24 

Disinfection  experiments  form  the  basis  for  the  directions  regarding 
scab  control;  see  inside  back  cover  and  Pages  10-49 

Corrosive  sublimate  loses  strength  when  used  for  treating  succes- 
sive lots  of  potatoes.  The  strength  should  be  maintained  by  adding 
*4  to  y2  ounce  of  the  chemical  after  every  4 bushels  treated. 

Pages  20-2  2 


Rural  New  Yorker  is  the  freest  from  scab  of  all  standard  Wiscon- 
sin varieties.  The  varieties  used,  named  in  order  of  increasing  scab- 
biness, are:  Burbank,  Green  Mountain,  Early  Ohio,  Triumph,  and 

Irish  Cobbler.  Pages  25-26 


Potato  Scab 


J.  W.  Brann  and  R.  E.  Vaughan 


fOTATO  seed  disinfection  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  and  practical  means  of  reducing 
scab.  Its  object  is  to  kill  the  scab  organ- 
isms on  the  surface  of  the  tubers  and  thus 
prevent  infection  of  the  soil  and  of  the 
following  crop.  This  is  especially  true 
where  the  soil  is  free  or  relatively  free 
from  the  disease  germs. 

In  Wisconsin,  as  in  most  other  northern 

potato  states,  scab  is  the  most  important  disease  with  which  t(he 
potato  grower  has  to  contend.  The  loss  from  this  disease  is 
difficult  to  estimate  but  considerable  sorting  for  scab  is  neces- 
sary each  season  at  all  loading  stations  and  on  many  farms  in 
some  localities.  The  value  of  the  crop,  either  for  table  or  seed 
stock,  may  often  be  directly  reduced  because  of  the  unsightly 
appearance  of  the  scabby  tubers. 

Wisconsin  is  producing  a large  amount  of  seed  potatoes  each 
year.  Farmers  raising  this  stock  are  especially  concerned  with 
scab  because  it  reduces  the  production  of  tubers  of  high  quality. 
Sections  of  the  state  recently  opened  to  farming  have  little  or 
no  scab,  but  all  growers  throughout  the  state  and  especially 
those  in  the  older  potato  sections  must  practice  the  best  methods 
of  seed  selection,  culture,  and  disease  control  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  standards  for  table  and  seed  stock. 

Appearance  of  Scab 

Diseased  tubers  show  roughened  and  corked  areas  ranging 
from  small  spots  to  a general  infection  of  the  entire  surface. 
The  disease  appears  either  as  a raised  surface  or  a slightly  de- 
pressed area.  Other  types  of  injury  are  often  confused  with 
the  true  scab. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


Deep  scab,  characterized  by  deep  irregular  corked  areas,  is 
no  doubt  associated  with  injury  by  wire  worms,  white  grubs, 
mites,  or  thousand  legged  worms.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
these  insects  prefer  to  enter  at  the  diseased  areas. 


TIG.  1.— POTATO  SCAB  INJURES  THE  APPEARANCE  AND  QUALITY  OF  TUBERS 
A— Deep  scab  increased  by  insect  attack. 

B— Gross  sections  of  badly  scabbed  tubers.  Wire  worms,  white  grubs,  and  larvae  of 
other  insects  often  feed  on  potatoes  injured  by  scab. 

A condition  quite  similar  to  scab  appears  to  be  induced  when 
the  growing  potato  comes  in  contact  with  roots,  stones,  or  other 
obstructions  to  normal  growth. 


Potato  Scab 


5 


A checked  or  corrugated  surface  much  like  scab  may  be 
caused  by  soil  conditions  and  reactions  resulting  from  appli- 
cation of  chemicals,  such  as  lime  and  ashes. 

Enlarged  lenticels,  enlarged  openings  in  the  skin,  which 
assume  a corky  appearance  in  older  stages,  are  sometimes 
conspicuous  on  the  Early  Ohio  and  Triumph  varieties.  This 
condition  has  been  observed  on  potatoes  grown  in  wet  soil  or 
soil  in  which  the  temperature  is  abnormally  high.  It  is  not 
usually  very  serious. 


FIG.  2.— ENLARGED'  LENTICELS 

This  appearance  is  most  noticeable  on  the  Triumph  variety  especially  when  grown  on 
wet  soil  or  at  high  temperature.  It  is  often  confused  with  scab. 


Cause  and  Spread  of  Potato  Scab 

Potato  scab  is  caused  by  an  organism  which,  if  once  introduced 
into  the  soil,  will  live  there  for  many  years.  On  freshly  dug 
scabbed  tubers,  one  can  see  a delicate  white  growth  which  con- 
sists of  countless  scab  germs.  The  disease  is  spread  by  planting 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


affected  potatoes  or  those  which  have  been  in  contact  with  scab- 
bed seed. 

Before  the  scab  organism  was  discovered,  the  disease  was  at- 
tributed to  any  of  these  causes:  too  much  moisture,  heavy  or 
rich  soil,  too  much  manure,  excessive  amounts  of  lime  or  ashes, 
and  insects.  Some  of  these  may  influence  the  development  of 
scab  but  do  not  directly  cause  it. 


CONTROL  MEASURES 
Corrosive  Sublimate 

Corrosive  sublimate,  4 ounces  to  30  gallons  of  water,  has 
proved  the  best  disinfectant  for  controlling  potato  scab  under 
Wisconsin  conditions.  It  is  also  the  best  control  for  Rhizoc- 
tonia  and  black  leg.  Since  the  chemical  dissolves  slowly  in  cold 
water,  it  should  first  be  stirred  into  about  a gallon  of  hot  water. 

The  strength  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution  can  best  be 
maintained  by  adding  y2  ounce  for  every  4 bushels  of  seed  po- 
tatoes treated  and  keeping  the  volume  of  water  constant.  This 
additional  amount  is  based  on  the  iy2  to  2 hour  treatment.  If  a 
shorter  treatment  is  given,  a correspondingly  smaller  amount  of 
chemical  should  be  added.  For  example,  if  4 bushels  are  soaked 
30  minutes,  add  % ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate.  For  conven- 
ience have  the  corrosive  sublimate  in  a stock  solution,  strength 
1 ounce  to  1 quart  of  water,  made  up  in  fruit  jars  or  stone 
crocks. 

Treat  only  sound,  uncut  tubers  before  the  sprouts  have 
started.  Dry  the  tubers  at  once  after  treatment  to  prevent  con- 
tinued action  of  the  chemical.  In  case  of  damp,  slow-drying 
weather  the  tubers  should  be  rinsed  with  clean  water  immedi- 
ately after  treatment.  Keep  in  clean  crates  or  sacks  in  half 
light  for  10  days  to  two  weeks  before  planting.  This  prevents 
reinfection  and  allows  strong  sprouts  to  start.  Do  not  place 
the  potatoes  in  direct  sunlight  because  they  will  get  too  hot  and 
develop  black  heart. 

Barrels,  or  wood  or  cement  tanks  are  frequently  used  in 
treating  potatoes.  The  tubers  may  be  handled  loose  or  in 
crates  or  sacks.  If  sacks  .are  used  they  should  first  be  washed 
and  disinfected : this  prevents  weakening  of  the  disinfectant. 


Potato  Scab 


7 


Galvanized  tanks  may  also  be  used  if  the  interior  is  coated  with 
asphaltum  paint. 

Cautions.  Corrosive  sublimate  is  a deadly  poison  if  taken 
internally;  therefore,  be  very  careful  to  keep  it  away  from 
young  children  and  all  farm  stock.  Avoid  over  treatment 
either  by  too  strong  a solution  or  too  long  a time,  as  the  eyes 
of  the  potato  may  be  injured  and  germination  retarded.  Do 
not  use  treated  potatoes  for  food. 

f Formaldehyde1 

Formaldehyde  is  sometimes  used  in  treating  potatoes.  The 
standard  strength  is  1 pint  to  30  gallons  of  water.  The  time 
of  treatment  usually  is  two  hours.  In  these  experiments  a 30 
minute  treatment  with  corrosive  sublimate  was  as  satisfactory 
as  two  hours  in  formaldehyde. 

Formaldehyde  has  been  widely  used  for  treating  potatoes. 
Leading  potato  growers,  however,  found  from  long  experience 
that  it  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  in  controlling  scab  under 
Wisconsin  conditions.  Comparative  trials  of  various  methods 
and  practices  were  made  in  order  to  determine  the  best  recom- 
mendations for  Wisconsin  growers.  As  a result  greater  em- 
phasis is  now  being  placed  on  the  use  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

Select  Scab-free  Tubers  for  Seed 

The  greater  the  amount  of  scab  on  the  seed,  the  greater  will 
be  the  number  of  scab  germs  introduced  into  the  soil,  and  the 
greater  the  amount  of  scab  on  the  crop.  The  use  of  “leftover” 
and  warehouse  seconds  is  strongly  discouraged. 

Practice  Crop  Rotation 

The  best  growers  have  demonstrated  that  it  is  not  advisable 
to  grow  potatoes  on  any  given  field  oftener  than  every  third- 
year.  A rotation  with  grain  and  clover  is  desirable  where  a 
part  of  the  cultivated  crop  may  be  corn.  The  plowing  under 
of  a crop  of  clover  or  fall  rye  before  planting  potatoes  is  a 


1 The  use  of  hot  formaldehyde  118°  to  122°F.  has  recently  been  recommended  in 
Iowa  by  Melhus  and  Gilman.  In  this  method  formaldehyde  is  used  at  the  strength 
of  1 pint  to  15  gallons  of  water.  The  potatoes  are  soaked  3 minutes,  drained,  and 
covered  for  1 hour. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


practice  to  be  highly  commended  from  the  standpoint  of  main- 
taining the  fertility  and  good  physical  condition  of  the  soil 
and  in  the  control  of  scab. 

Select  Scab-free  Soil 

Soils  in  different  sections  of  the  state,  on  different  farms,  and 
even  in  different  fields  of  the  same  farm  vary  in  the  amount 
of  scab  organisms  present.  In  general,  the  older  sections  and 


FIG.  3.— BARRELS  FOR  TREATMENT 

Barrels  set  upon  a platform  make  good  containers  'when  a few  bushels  of  potatoes 
are  to  be  treated.  Potatoes  should  be  treated  loose.  The  solution  can  be  drawn 
off  after  treatment  and  the  potatoes  easily  emptied  and  spread  to  dry. 

fields  long  used  for  potatoes  will  have  the  most  scab.  A farm 
plan  will  greatly  assist  in  locating  fields  where  potatoes  should 
or  should  not  be  planted. 

Avoid  Heavy  Applications  of  Lime,  Wood  Ashes,  or  Manures 
Just  Previous  to  Planting 

If  the  soil  is  too  acid  and  needs  lime,  it  should  be  applied 
after  rather  than  before  the  potato  crop.  Good  results  have 
been  secured  by  applying  manures  to  the  clover  field  the  year 
previous  to  using  it  for  potatoes. 


Potato  Scab 


9 


Avoid  Feeding  Uncooked  Scabbed  Potatoes  to  Stock 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  scab  organism  may  pass 
through  the  digestive  tracts  of  animals  without  losing  its  power 
to  produce  the  disease. 


FIG.  4.— A CEMENT  TREATING  TANK 


Potatoes  are  conveniently  handled  in  crates.  A cement  tank  with  a central  partition 
may  also  be  used  in  preparing  solutions  of  copper  sulphate  and  milk  of  lime  for 
making  bordeaux  mixture.  Compare  front  page  and  figure  3 for  different  containers. 

DISINFECTION  EXPERIMENTS 

Experiments  of  1916-1917.  The  object  of  the  experiments 
was  to  compare  corrosive  sublimate  and  formaldehyde  in  the 
control  of  scab  when  both  clean  and  scabbed  seed  were  used. 

The  results  of  extensive  work  done  during  the  seasons  of  1916 
| and  1917  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  are 
I presented  in  Tables  I and  II.  Further  work  was  done  from 
[ 1918  to  1920  in  Waushara  County,  Barron  County,  and  at  the 
Wisconsin  Branch  Station,  Spooner. 

In  these  plots  there  were  143  units  or  treatments,  of  which 
119  were  devoted  to  the  Rural  New  Yorker  and  Green  Moun- 
tain— the  two  leading  standard  late  varieties  of  Wisconsin.  In- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


eluded  in  the  remaining  24  units  were  the  Burbank  (late  vari- 
ety), Irish  Cobbler,  Triumph,  Early  Ohio,  and  Early  Rose 
(early  varieties).  The  average  number  of  plants  in  each  unit 
or  treatment  was  50.  In  the  plots  there  was  a total  of  23  con- 
trols planted  to  clean  seed  and  13  controls  planted  to  scabbed 
seed.  Clean  seed  and  scabbed  seed  were  used  both  in  treated 
and  untreated  units. 

The  potatoes  in  all  experiments  were  selected  with  care  as  to 
uniformity  in  size,  type,  and  quality.  In  units  where  scabbed 
seed  was  used,  stock  with  uniform  infection  was  selected. 

Tarle  I. — Average  of  results,  seed  potato  disinfection  at  Experi- 
ment Station  plots— 1916  and  1917 


Rural  New  Yorker  variety 


Treatment 

No.  of 
units 

Per  cent  scab 

Corrosive  sublimat* 

14 

3.5 

■ 

Clean  1 

seed  . . i 

1 

1 

Formaldehyde 

4 

10.0 

Untreated 

8 

20.0 

r 

Corrosive  sub.imaie 

12 

11.0 

Scabbed 

seed  . . i 

Formaldehyde 

5 

20  0 

U 

Untreated 

6 

52.5 

Corrosive  sublimate  and  formaldehyde  were  used  as  disinfect- 
ants. The  corrosive  sublimate  was  used  at  a strength  of  4 
ounces  to  30  gallons  of  water  (1  to  1000),  and  potatoes  were 
treated  iy2  hours.  Formaldehyde  (40%  solution)  was  used  at 
a strength  of  1 pint  to  30  gallons  of  water,  and  potatoes  were 
treated  2 hours.  The  water  was  kept  at  about  16 °C.  (60°F.) 
throughout  all  experiments.  The  potatoes  were  dried  immedi- 
ately after  treatment.  They  were  planted  by  hand  4 to  6 
inches  deep  in  rows  3 feet  apart,  with  plants  16  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  Neither  the  appearance  of  the  tubers  nor  the  stand 
indicated  any  injury  as  a result  of  the  treatments. 

The  soil  in  these  plots  was  in  part  a medium  silt  loam  and 
in  part  a medium  clay  loam.  Both  spring  plowing  and  fall 
plowing  were  tried  resulting  in  practically  no  difference  in 
the  amount  of  scab  on  the  crop. 


Potato  Scab 


11 


The  season  of  1916  was  hot  and  dry.  It  was  observed  that 
under  these  conditions  the  development  of  scab  throughout  the 
state  was  rather  pronounced.  The  seasons  of  1917  and  1918 
were  fairly  normal  in  both  temperature  and  moisture. 

The  results  obtained  from  seed  disinfection  are  summarized 
in  graphic  form  as  averages  of  the  various  treatments  on  all 
plots  devoted  primarily  to  the  Rural  New  Yorker  variety. 
Comparable  results  were  obtained  with  the  Green  Mountain  and 
Burbank  varieties. 

Table  II  — Average  results,  seed  potato  disinfection  at  Experi- 
ment Station  plots — 19  L6  and  1917 


Irish  Cobbler,  Early  Ohio,  Triumph,  and  Early  Rose  (early  varieties) 


Treatment 

No.  of 
units 

Per  cent  scab 

f 

Corrosive  sublimate 

3 

2.5 

a 

Clean  I 

seed . . -i 

Formaldehyde 

1 

23.5 

BHHHHHi 

1 

l 

Untreated 

8 

45.5 

r 

1 

Corrosive  sublimate 

3 

28.5 

Scabbed  1 

seed . . •{ 

Formaldehyde 

1 

56.5 

I 

Untreated 

5 

61.0 

The  results  indicated  by  the  percentage  of  scab  on  the  product 
from  treated  and  untreated  seed,  both  clean  and  scabbed,  show 
that  corrosive  sublimate  is  more  effective  than  formaldehyde  in 
the  control  of  potato  scab.  Formaldehyde,  however,  reduced 
the  scab  considerably. 

The  product  from  treated  scabbed  seed  showed  more  scab 
than  that  from  treated  clean  seed.  Possibly  some  of  the  germs 
adhering  to  the  irregular  scabbed  areas  resisted  treatment,  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  may  have  been  protected  by  air  bub- 
bles, which  are  more  likely  to  form  on  scabbed  seed  than  on 
clean  seed  immersed  in  a liquid. 

The  product  from  untreated  scabbed  seed  showed  a higher 
precentage  of  scab  than  that  from  clean  seed  controls  (un- 
treated). This  is  reasonable,  since  scabbed  seed  supposedly 
has  a much  larger  number  of  germs  on  its  surface  than  the 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


FIG.  5.— COMPARATIVE  RESULTS  OF  1917  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCABBED  SEE© 


Potato  Scab 


13 


Clean 


Scabbed 


Clean  Seed  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate 


Clean  seed  treated  with  formaldehyde  soluf 


Clean 


Clean  Seed  untreated 


FIG.  6.— COMPARATIVE  RESULTS  OF  1917  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  CLEAN  SEED 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


apparently  clean  seed.  Since  in  this  way  more  germs  are  in- 
troduced into  the  soil,  it  is  expected  that  a higher  percentage 
of  scab  will  result  when  scabbed  seed  is  used. 

The  tuber  surface  infection  in  the  product  from  untreated 
scabbed  seed  was  very  much  higher  than  that  from  untreated 
clean  seed.  The  percentage  of  scab  given,  therefore,  is  not  a 
true  indication  of  the  relative  amount  of  infection  of  tubers, 
since  equal  consideration  was  given  to  a tuber  having  only 
one  scabbed  spot  and  one  with  a heavy  surface  infection. 

The  results  show  clearly  the  value  of  seed  disinfection  and 
also  that  the  disease  may  be  increased  by  planting  scabbed 
seed  stock.  It  is  recommended,  therefore,  that  growers  select 
seed  as  free  from  scab  as  possible,  whether  or  not  it  is  to  be 
treated. 

Experiments  of  1918.  The  objects  of  these  experiments 
were:  (1)  to  compare  corrosive  sublimate  with  formaldehyde  in 
the  control  of  scab,  whether  or  not  the  tubers  treated  were  pre- 
viously soaked  in  water,  and  (2)  to  determine  the  effect  of 
these  chemicals  on  the  control  of  scab  when  tubers  were  sub- 
jected to  treatment  for  a duration  of  1,  1 and  2 hours, 
respectively. 

Corrosive  sublimate  at  a strength  of  4 ounces  to  30  gallons 
water,  and  formaldehyde  1 pint  to  30  gallons  water,  were  used. 
The  seed  used  was  in  part  badly  scabbed  and  in  part  relatively 
free  from  scab. 

The  soil  in  the  Waushara  County  plot  was  a medium  dark 
sandy  loam,  very  uniform  in  texture.  The  main  field  in  which 
the  plot  was  located  had  been  planted  to  potatoes  in  1911  and 
again  in  1914.  As  indicated  by  the  untreated  units,  scab 
germs,  no  doubt,  were  present  to  some  extent  in  the  soil.  The 
Late  Ohio  was  used  in  all  the  units  of  the  plot. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  indicate  that  the  1 y2  hour 
to  2 hour  treatment  in  corrosive  sublimate  is  more  effective  in 
scab  control  than  the  x/2  hour  treatment.  However,  the  shorter 
treatment  may  be  used  if  treatment  must  be  delayed. 

Seed  soaked  in  water  previous  to  treatment  with  corrosive 
sublimate  gave  a product  that  had  less  scab  than  the  product 
from  unsoaked  seed.  This  appears  to  indicate  either  that 
water  had  some  beneficial  influence  by  washing  off  some  of  the 
scab  organisms  or  in  soaking  up  the  tissue  about  the  scab  spots 


Potato  Scab 


15 


so  that  it  would  be  more  readily  penetrated  by  the  disinfect- 
ants. 


Table  III. — Seed  potato  disinfection  for  different  lengths  of 
time — Late  Ohio  variety,  Waushara  County,  1918 


Treatment 

Time 

Per  cent  scab 

Corrosive  sublimate 

Hours 

Potatoes  not  soaked 

I 

25.5 

Soaked  24  hrs.  in  water 

i 

17.0 

Potatoes  not  soaked 

1 

7.5 

SI 

Soaked  24  hours  in  water 

1 

4.5 

■ 

Potatoes  not  soaked 

u 

7.0 

Soaked  24  hrs.  in  water 

n 

10.0 

minium 

Potatoes  not  soaked 

2 

13.5 

Soaked  24  hrs.  in  water 

2 

2.0 

III' 

Untreated 

Potatoes  not  soaked 

64.0 

Soaked  24  hrs.  in  water 

65.0 

Corrosive  sublimate 

li  ! 

5.5 

m 

(selected  seed, clean) 

Formaldehyde 

li 

20.5 

(selected  seed, clean) 
TTn  t rpa  tori 

55.0 

(selected  seed, clean) 

The  average  of  results  shows  that  formaldehyde  is  not  as 
effective  as  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  control  of  scab.  This 
is  shown  clearly  in  the  units  where  scabbed  seed  was  used  and 
confirms  the  reports  received  from  the  leading  growers  of  the 
Wisconsin  Potato  Growers’  Association. 

Experiments  of  1919.  The  objects  of  the  experiments  were : 
(1)  to  compare  corrosive  sublimate  with  formaldehyde  solution 
(both  hot  and  cold)  in  the  control  of  potato  scab,  and  (2)  to 
determine  the  effect  of  these  chemicals  in  the  control  when  tu- 
bers were  treated  y2,  1,  1 y2,  and  2 hours,  respectively. 

Corrosive  sublimate  was  used  at  the  strength  of  4 ounces  to 
30  gallons  water,  and  formaldehyde  at  1 pint  to  15  gallons 
water  in  hot  solution  and  1 pint  to  30  gallons  water  in  cold 
solution.  Both  scabbed  and  relatively  clean  seed  were  selected 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


FIG.  7. — YIELD  OF  THREE;  50  HILL  UNITS  SORTED  FOR  SCAB.  EXPERIMENTS 

OF  1919 


Potato  Scab 


17 


with  care.  Potatoes  of  the  Late  Ohio  variety  were  selected  from 
the  same  bin  for  both  plots. 

The  soil  in  the  Waushara  County  plot  was  a medium  sandy 
loam  of  a very  uniform  texture.  The  soil  in  the  Barron 
County  plot  was  a medium  clay  loam  of  relatively  uniform 
texture.  Both  soils  had  been  cropped  several  times  to  potatoes, 
in  a three-year  system  of  rotation. 

The  plots  at  each  place  consisted  of  25  rows  (units)  each 
containing  65  hills. 

Table  IV. — Results  of  seed  potato  disinfection — Waushara 
County,  1919 


Condition 
of  seed 

Treatment 

Time 

No.  of 
units 

Relatively 

Corrosive 
; sublimat 

Hours 

2 

3 

clean 

' Untreated 
! (control). 

0 

3 

Scabbed 

Corrosive 

sublima1 

1 . 

1 

1 

1 

“ 

14 

1 

2 

i 

Scabbed 

lormalde- 
hyde(cold 
16°C.  61  °F 

1 

! i 

1 

i 

11 

i 

2 

i 

Scabbed 

Form  alde- 
hyde, 54°C 
129°F. . .. 

Minutes 

1 

i 

“ 

2 

i 

“ 

'*• 

8 

“ 

50°C.  122°  F 

4 

i 

“ 

50°C  122°F. 

5 

i 

Scabbed 

Untreated 
(control) . . 

0 

6 

Per  cent  of  scab 


5.5  Iff, 


Corrosive  sublimate  was  more  effective  than  formaldehyde 
(cold  or  hot  solution)  in  the  control  of  potato  scab.  This  is 
shown  clearly  in  the  units  where  scabbed  seed  was  used.  Hot 
formaldehyde  was  more  effective  than  cold  formaldehyde  and 
less  effective  than  corrosive  sublimate. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


The  half-hour  treatment  in  corrosive  sublimate  was  not  as 
effective  as  the  longer  treatments.  This  method  is  not  recom- 
mended except  where  seed  is  especially  clean  or  in  cases  where 
treatment  has  been  delayed  until  the  sprouts  have  started.  The 
results,  however,  indicate  that  this  treatment  is  as  effective  as 
the  longer  treatments  with  formaldehyde  (cold  solution). 


FIG.  8.— DON’T  OVER-TREAT 


A— Treated  for  12  hours. 

B— Section  of  injured  tuber.  Tubers  treated  when  dormant  are  little  subject  to 
injury.  If  possible,  treat  potatoes  from  10  days  to  two  weeks  or  more  before  planting. 


The  percentage  of  scab  decreased  with  the  increase  in  the  time 
of  treatment,  although  there  were  some  variations  conflicting 
with  what  might  have  been  expected.  Any  slight  variations 
may  be  attributed  to  variable  amounts  of  the  scab  organism  in 
the  soil. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  carried  on  in  Barron  County 
confirm  in  general  those  obtained  in  Waushara  County. 

Experiments  of  1920.  The  objects  of  these  experiments 
were:  (1)  to  repeat  the  trials  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  com- 
parison with  cold  and  hot  formaldehyde,  (2)  to  test  the  value 
of  copper  sulphate  and  inoculated  sulphur,  and  (3)  to  deter- 
mine the  value  of  selecting  seed  apparently  free  from  scab  in 
the  control  of  the  disease. 

The  results  at  the  end  of  the  season  showed  that  where  the 
seed  tubers  had  been  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate,  the 
scab  infection  ranged  from  slight  to  medium  in  amount,  with 
no  cases  of  bad  scab  that  would  seriously  disqualify  for  the 


Potato  Scab 


19 


commercial  market.  The  scab  infection  where  formaldehyde 
has  been  used  on  the  seed  was  somewhat  more  severe  than 
with  the  corrosive  sublimate  treatment.  There  was  practically 
no  difference  between  the  hot  and  cold  formaldehyde.  Where 
inoculated  sulphur  was  harrowed  into  the  soil  at  the  time 
plants  were  coming  through  the  ground,  there  was  practically 
no  difference  between  the  treated  and  untreated  plots.  The 
copper  sulphate  treatment  did  not  show  sufficiently  definite 
results  so  that  safe  conclusions  could  be  drawn. 

The  control  of  scab  by  selecting  apparently  scab-free  seed 
is  a practice  that  can  be  recommended.  The  number  of  tubers 
that  showed  scab  spots  was  greater  than  in  many  of  the 
treated  plots,  but  the  extent  of  scab  infection  on  the  field  run 
of  the  crop  was  distinctly  less  than  where  unselected  seed 
tubers  were  planted.  Furthermore,  the  result  from  such  seed 
selection  in  the  control  of  black  scurf  (Rhizoctonia)  is  much 
more  important  than  with  scab.  Seed  selection  and  treat- 
ment, therefore,  are  farm  practices  that  can  be  most  highly 
commended  for  the  control  of  black  scurf  and  scab. 

Effect  of  Treating  Successive  Quantities  of  Potatoes  In 
the  Same  Solution 

In  connection  with  the  1917  Madison  experiments,  32  units 
were  devoted  to  treating  successive  amounts  of  potatoes  in  the 
same  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Approximately  % peck 
lots  were  used.  Each  lot  was  treated  l1/^  hours.  One  pint  sam- 
ples of  the  original  solution  and  of  the  solution  after  each  of  the 
four  successive  treatments  were  taken  for  chemical  examina- 
tion. Analysis  of  the  strength  of  each  solution  was  made  by  the 
Division  of  Feed  and  Fertilizer  Inspection,  Wisconsin  State 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  results  of  analyses  showed 
that  the  corrosive  sublimate  decreased  in  strength  with  each  suc- 
ceeding treatment.  Since  this  was  the  case,  it  was  expected 
that  more  scab  would  be  present  on  the  potatoes  receiving  later 
treatment.  That  this  is  true  is  shown  in  Tables  V and  VI. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


FIG.  9.— IT  DOES  NOT  PAT  TO  PLANT  OR  TREAT  INFERIOR  SEED  STOCK 
A — Spindle  sprouts  indicate  low  vitality. 

B— Excessively  shriveled  tuber  indicates  vitality  lost  through  storage  at  too  high 
temperature. 

C— Black  scurf  or  Rhizoctonia. 

D— Growth  cracks. 


Potato  Scab 


21 


Tab LK  V. — Results  of  treating  four  successive  amounts  of  pota- 
toes IN  THE  SAME  SOLUTION  OF  CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE — RURAL  New 
Yorker  variety1 


Number  of  treat- 
ment and  condition 
of  seed 

Per  cent  scab 

Average  per  cent  scab 

Exp.  1 

Exp.  2 

Exp.  3 

Exp.  1,  2,  3 

1 clean 

1.5 

3.0 

2.5 

2.5 

m 

1 scabbed 

14.5 

7.0 

10.5 

ilium 

2 clean.  

5.5 

7.0 

2.0 

4.5 

■ 

2 scabbed 

17.5 

7.5 

12.5 

3 clean 

5.0 

4.5 

2.0 

4.0 

m 

3 scabbed 

16.0 

12  0 

14.0 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

IPS 

4 clean 

5.0 

4.5 

8.0 

6.0 

4 scabbed 

23.0 

14.5 

18.5 

!!!!lllll!lllllll!!ll!ll! 

Untreated 

Clean 

15.0 

11.5 

19.0 

15.0 

Scabbed 

46.5 

43  0 

45.0 

IIII1IIIII1IIW 

Relatively  free  from  dirt  and  with  no  visible  scab  spots. 


The  results  show  that  there  is  an  increase  in  the  percentage 
of  scab  in  the  product  of  each  successive  unit  of  seed  treated. 
It  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  the  increase  in  scab  is  a result 
of  decrease  in  the  strength  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution 
which,  according  to  chemists,  is  due  . to  a combination  of  a por- 
tion of  the  corrosive  sublimate  with  the  organic  matter  of  the 
outer  portion  of  the  tuber.  Table  V indicates  that  a slightly 
greater  loss  occurs  when  scabbed  tubers  are  treated  than  when 
clean  seed  is  treated. 

Another  experiment  was  conducted  to  determine  the  loss  of 
strength  of  the  corrosive  sublimate,  by  treating  12  consecutive 
lots  of  potatoes  in  the  same  solution.  Analysis  was  made  of 
the  solution  after  each  treatment.  The  results  are  given  in 
Table  VI. 

Corrosive  sublimate  loses  strength  with  each  successive  treat- 
ment. Unless  the  solution  is  strengthened  each  time  by  addi- 
tion of  more  of  the  chemical  but  little  germicidal  action  will 
result  after  the  third  or  fourth  treatment. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


Table  VI. — Los3  op  strength  op  corrosive  sublimate  with  treat- 
ment op  12  consecutive  lots  of  potatoes 


Treatment 

Per  cent  of  standard  strength1 

Original  solution 

91.0 

After  1st  treatment 

75.0 

“ • 2nd  “ 

66.0 

“ 3rd  “ 

57.0 

4th  “ 

46.0 

5th  ’*  

35.0 

7th  “ 

26.0 

9th  “ 

16.0 

12th  ” 

6.5 

- 

1 Standard  strength  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  is  4 ounces  to  30  gallons  of 
water,  or  1 part  of  the  chemical  to  1000  parts  of  water. 


Where  relatively  small  amounts  of  potatoes  are  to  be  treated, 
it  has  sometimes  been  found  convenient  to  increase  the  time 
of  treatment  for  the  second  lot  to  1%  hours,  for  the  third  lot 
to  2 hours,  and  that  for  the  fourth  lot  to  2%  hours,  where  no 
chemical  has  been  added.  This  practice,  however,  has  not 
been  established  by  definite  experiments  under  Wisconsin  con- 
ditions. 

Influence  of  Soil  Treatments  on  Scab 

Experiments  were  conducted  at  Madison  in  1916  to  determine 
the  influence  of  manures,  lime,  wood  ashes,  and  sulphur  on  the 
development  of  scab.  The  soil  in  the  plots  was  a medium  clay 
loam.  The  manures  were  applied  to  the  surface  in  a relatively 
fresh  condition  and  were  carefully  worked  into  the  soil.  The 
same  practice  was  followed  in  applying  the  other  materials. 
The  rate  of  application,  the  number  of  units  or  individual  ex- 
periments, and  the  percentage  of  scab  are  given  in  Table  VII. 
Rural  New  Yorker  and  Green  Mountain,  the  two  leading  lat-e 
varieties  of  potatoes  in  Wisconsin,  were  used. 

The  potatoes  grown  in  plots  receiving  applications  of  horse 
and  cow  manures  had  the  highest  percentage  of  scab,  and  this 
was  a decided  increase  over  that  in  the  controls.  Field  obser- 
vations during  five  seasons  support  these  results.  The  reason 
for  this  increase  is  rather  difficult  to  explain.  The  manures 


Potato  Scab 


23 


may  exert  some  physical  influence  on  the  soil  which  is  favorable 
to  the  development  of  the  scab  organism.  Moreover,  it  has 
been  noted  that  manures,  especially  horse  manure,  favor  the 
growth  of  organisms  which  belong  to  the  same  group  as  the 
scab  organism. 


FIG.  10.— ROUGHENED  SURFACE 

This  checked  condition  may  be  caused  by  unfavorable  soil  conditions,  especially  in 
heavy  soils.  It  is  sometimes  confused  with  scab  and  black  scurf  injury. 


The  amount  of  surface  infection  by  scab  on  tubers  from  man- 
ured plots  was  much  greater  than  in  the  controls.  Therefore, 
the  percentage  given  is  not  a true  indication  of  the  relative  in- 
fection. A high  percentage  of  tubers  in  the  fertilized  plots 
would  grade  second  quality  because  of  their  unsightly  appear- 
ance. 

Air  slaked  lime  and  unleached  wood  ashes  added  to  the  soil 
increased  scab.  These  materials  reduce  the  acidity  of  the  soil 
and  no  doubt  produce  a condition  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  scab.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  scab  organism 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


is  favored  in  its  growth  by  a soil  which  does  not  give  an  acid 
reaction. 

In  general,  results  show  that  the  most  scab  occurred  in  the 
units  receiving  the  heaviest  applications.  A gradual  reduction 
occurred  as  the  amount  of  manure,  lime,  or  wood  ashes  was 
reduced. 


Table  VII. — Results  of  experiments  on  the'influence  of  certain 

SOIL  TREATMENTS  ON  SCAB 
Average  of  Rural  New  Yorker  and  Green  Mountain  varieties 


Treatment 

Amount 

No.  of 

per  acre 

units 

25.0  T 

2 

75 

Horse 

manure 

12.5  T 

2 

69 

(fresh) 

7.0  T 

2 

56 

25.0  T 

2 

79 

Cow 

manure 

12.5  T 

2 

71 

(fresh) 

7.0  T 

2 

75 

220  bu. 

2 

69 

Lime 

(air 

slaked) 

110  bu. 

2 

62 

55  bu. 

2 

48 

200  bu. 

2 

62 

Ashes 

(wood) 

100  bu. 

2 

52 

50  bu. 

2 

39 

900  lbs. 

! 2 

27 

Sulphur 

450  lbs. 

2 

36 

Tubers  treated  with  cor- 

rosive sublimate: 

4 

3 

Formaldehyde 

3 

7 

Untreated  potatoes  or 

10 

39 

controls 

Average  per  cent  scab 


In  one  plot,  less  scab  occurred  on  the  units  treated  with  sul- 
phur than  on  the  controls.  The  percentage  of  scab  increased 
with  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  sulphur  applied.  Results 
in  another  plot,  however,  showed  no  beneficial  influence  from 
sulphur.  In  view  of  these  results  and  because  of  the  high  cost 


Potato  Scab 


25 


of  this  treatment,  sulphur  cannot  be  recommended  at  this  time. 
Inoculated  sulphur  may  find  a place  for  itself  in  the  future,  as 
experiments  reported  from  New  York  and  New  Jersey  show 
that  it  has  some  value  in  the  control  of  scab  when  harrowed 
into  the  soil  just  before  planting. 

Both  corrosive  sublimate  and  formaldehyde  reduced  scab  de- 
cidedly. Corrosive  sublimate,  however,  proved  the  more  ef- 
fective. 


FIG.  11.— SEED  TREATMENT  IS  WORTH  WHILE 

Treatment  reduces  the  danger  of  introducing  disease  germs  into  the  soil  with  the 
seed.  Potatoes  should  be  laid  out  in  half  light  on  floor  or  canvas,  either  loose  or  in 
crates,  to  allow  strong  sprouts  to  form  after  treatment. 


OCCURRENCE  OF  SCAB  ON  SIX  STANDARD  WISCON- 
SIN VARIETIES 

Along  with  the  study  of  seed  disinfection,  there  was  oppor- 
tunity to  determine  the  occurrence  of  scab  on  six  standard 
varieties  of  potatoes.  Results  were  obtained  by  determining 
the  average  of  scab  in  the  product  of  control  (untreated)  units 
planted  to  clean  or  relatively  clean  seed.  All  varieties  were 
planted  at  approximately  the  same  date. 

The  lowest  percentage  of  scab  occurred  on  the  Rural  New 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  331 


Yorker,  one  of  the  leading  late  varieties,  and  the  highest  per- 
centage on  the  Irish  Cobbler,  a leading  early  variety.  Field  ob- 
servations throughout  leading  potato  sections,  in  connection  with 
seed  potato  inspection  covering  six  years,  substantiate  these  re- 
sults. They  show  that  the  late  varieties  have  a lower  percen- 
tage of  scab  than  early  varieties.  Whether  this  is  due  to  vari- 
etal susceptibility  or  whether  some  other  factor  or  combination 
of  factors  is  the  determining  agent  remains  to  be  decided 
through  investigations  now  in  progress  at  the  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station. 


Table  VIII. — Occurrence  of  Scab  on  six  leading  Wisconsin  varieties 


Varieties 

No.  of 
units 

Average  per  cent  scab 

Late  varieties 

Rural  New  Yorker 

17 

24 

Burbank 

10 

32 

Green  Mountain 

9 

40 

Early  varieties 

Early  Ohio 

11 

44 

Triumph 

5 

51 

Irish  Cobbler 

7 

62 

During  the  hot  summer  of  1916,  scab  was  especially  severe. 
That  temperature  may  be  an  important  factor  seems  plausible 
as  a result  of  the  investigations  of  the  past  year.  Greenhouse 
experiments  show  that  a moderately  high  temperature  favors 
the  development  of  the  disease.  Since  the  early  varieties  usu- 
ally develop  tubers  during  the  hotter  portion  of  the  season,  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  relatively  high  temperature 
favors  the  disease  these  varieties  will  have  more  scab  than  the 
later  varieties,  which  usually  develop  when  the  temperature  is 
much  lower. 

A tendency  was  noted  also  toward  heaviest  scab  infection  on 
the  stem  end  of  tubers.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  Bur- 
bank variety.  This  would  indicate  that  infection  took  place  in 
the  early  development  of  the  tuber  during  the  hotter  portion 
of  the  season.  It  appears  that  the  enlargement  of  the  scab 
areas  is  associated  with  the  growth  of  tubers. 


Potato  Scab 


27 


Another  indication  that  scab  develops  early  in  the  season  is 
that  the  scabbed  potatoes  average  considerably  higher  in  weight 
than  the  clean  stock.  Their  increase  in  size  is,  of  course,  due 
to  a longer  period  of  growth. 

Field  observations  and  reports  by  growers  indicate  that  when 
the  early  maturing  varieties  are  planted  late  they  do  not  have 
as  high  a percentage  of  scab  as  those  planted  earlier.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  Triumph.  This  merits  consideration  since 
other  diseases,  as  tip  burn  and  various  leaf  troubles,  also  occur 
less  severely  in  late-planted  early  varieties. 


TREAT  SEED  POTATOES  

Control  scab,  black  scurf,  and  black  leg. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  the  best  disinfectant  to  use. 

Treat  uncut  seed;  if  possible  treat  it  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  before  planting. 

The  proper  strength  is  1:1000,  or  4 ounces  to  30  gallons 
of  water. 

The  time  of  treatment  recommended  is  1 % hours  for 
dormant  seed;  if  seed  has  commenced  to  sprout,  reduce 
the  time  but  soak  at  least  y2  hour. 

Keep  up  strength  of  solution  by  adding  % ounces  of 
chemical  after  treating  each  4 bushels  of  potatoes  1 % 
hours  and  restoring  the  volume  of  water  to  the  original 
30  gallons. 

Throw  away  the  treating  solution  after  the  third  or 
fourth  treatment,  when  no  chemical  has  been  added.  In 
this  case,  increase  the  time  of  treatment  15  minutes  for 
each  consecutive  lot  treated. 

Use  wood  or  cement  containers,  such  as  barrels  or 
tanks.  Galvanized  iron  tanks  may  be  used  if  protected  by 
asphaltum  paint.  Corrosive  sublimate  eats  holes  in  unpro- 
tected metal. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  a deadly  poison  if  taken  inter- 
nally. Therefore,  be  very  careful  to  keep  it  away  from 
children  and  all  farm  stock.  The  solution  is  colorless, 
tasteless,  and  odorless,  and  likely  to  be  mistaken  for 
water  if  left  exposed.  Do  not  use  treated  potatoes  for  food. 

Formaldehyde  is  sometimes  used  at  the  rate  of  1 pound 
to  30  gallons.  Soak  the  uncut  seed  2 hours.  In  case 
sprouts  have  started,  there  is  less  injury  than  where  cor- 
rosive sublimate  is  used.  It  .s  not  as  efficient  as  corrosive 
sublimate  in  controlling  scab  and  black  scurf. 


50- 

^uUetin  332 




April,  1921 


Farms 

fo  1 1 o w 

Stumps 


E.  J.  Delwiche  of  the  Agronomy  Department  (R.  A.  Moore,  Chairman) 
has  had  immediate  charge  of  the  field  crops  work  for  Upper  Wisconsin  and 
has  also  served  as  Superintendent  in  charge  of  the  Ashland  Junction  and 
Spooner  Stations  since  their  foundation. 

F.  L.  Musbach  of  the  Soils  Department  (A.  R.  Whitson,  Chairman)  has 
had  supervision  of  soils  work  at  the  three  stations  and  has  also  acted  as 
Superintendent  of  the  Marshfield  Station. 

Horticultural  work  (orchards)  under  direction  of  J.  G.  Moore,  Chair- 
man, Horticultural  Department,  is  in  progress  at  Ashland  Junction;  potato 
investigations  under  J.  G.  Mil  ward  at  Spooner.  Dairy  herds  (Guernsey  at 
Spooner;  Holsteins  at  Marshfield  and  Ashland)  have  been  under  supervision 
of  G.  C.  Humphrey,  Chairman,  Animal  Husbandry  Department. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 

H.  L.  Russell 

VER  80,000  years  ago  ice  more  than  one-quarter 
mile  deep  covered  all  but  southwestern  Wiscon- 
sin. Great  continental  glaciers  swept  down  from 
the  Canadian  Highlands  during  the  Ice  Age  to 
plough  and  scour  the  underlying  rocks  that  make 
up  the  core  of  the  continent.  These  glaciers 
scraped  out  lake  beds,  changed  the  courses  of 
rivers  and  leveled  hills,  while  the  grinding  of 
the  ice  against  the  rock  beds  and  the  wearing  down  of  the 
boulders  by  the  water  produced  the  rock  flour  now  found  in 
silt  loams,  clays,  and  sands. 

The  retreat  and  advance  of  several  such  ice  invasions  made 
Wisconsin  soils  much  more  complex  and  varied  than  those  farther 
south.  Most  of  these  soils  are  productive  if  properly  managed, 
yet  the  crops  grown  on  sandy  loam  may  not  be  adapted  to  red 
clay  or  clay  loam.  While  a large  area  of  the  state  is  being  suc- 
cessfully farmed,  over  100,000  farms  of  80  acres  each  are  still 
waiting  for  the  settler  in  upper  Wisconsin ; and  if  the  settler  is 
to  succeed  he  must  know  what  crops  grow  best  on  his  particular 
soil.  The  farmer  from  the  prairies  cannot  grow  the  same  crops  in 
upper  Wisconsin  that  he  raised  on  his  old  farm. 

Years  ago  the  central  farm  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  was  begun  at  Madison  on  a highly  fertile  soil  known  as 
the  Miami  silt  loam.  This  is  the  most  common  soil  type  of 
eight  counties  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  but  repre- 
sents only  a small  part  of  Wisconsin’s  soil  and  climate.  Since 
the  soils  could  not  be  moved  to  Madison  for  study  except  in  the 
laboratory  or  green  houses,  it  was  necessary  to  go  where  the 
dominant  types  exist.  Accordingly  the  legislature  of  1909 
authorized  the  establishment  of  branch  experiment  stations. 
These  stations  perform  work  for  hundreds  of  farmers  in  the 
state  at  low  cost,  and  the  results  help  the  settler  build  both  his 
home  and  his  farm. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


Diverse  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  heritage  of  the 
Ice  Age,  are  thus  being  turned  to  the  advantage  of  the  common- 
wealth and  the  promotion  of  better  agriculture. 

Milestones  Passed 

In  ten  years  12,000  new  farms  have  been  made  for  upper 
Wisconsin  and  the  branch  stations  have  worked  not  only  to  take 
care  of  these  new  farmers  but  also  of  those  who  lived  in  the 
country  before  extensive  immigration  began.  Land  clearing  work 
has  resulted  in  the  clearing  of  more  than  50,000  acres  a year  for 
ten  years  (80,000  in  1920).  More  and  more  land  is  yearly 
being  brought  under  the  plow  through  the  efforts  of  the  land 
clearing  division  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  cooperating 
with  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  bankers,  railroads, 
powder  companies,  and  farm  organizations. 

The  corn  of  upper  Wisconsin  was  once  a mixture  of  red, 
white,  yellow,  and  black,  so  that  it  was  well  called  “calico  corn”. 
These  scrub  varieties  were  low  yielders,  often  failing  to  mature 
and  gave  generally  unsatisfactory  results.  Now  the  introduction 
of  the  standard  corns  that  have  been  bred  primarily  to  meet 
the  climatic  conditions  of  the  new  north,  such  as  Wisconsin  No. 
25,  Chippewa  Flint,  and  Wisconsin  No.  8 and  12  have  substan- 
tially replaced  the  old  types.  Every  county  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin is  today  represented  in  the  membership  of  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Association  and  these  men  make  their  farms  the 
centers  for  the  dissemination  of  pure-bred  seeds  throughout 
their  section. 

Livestock  farming  has  been  found  profitable  and  the  inter- 
est of  some  counties  has  been  so  stimulated  that  they  are  boast- 
ing of  having  every  sire  purebred.  Several  counties  have 
campaigns  under  way  for  the  elimination  of  every  tuberculosis- 
infected  animal  in  the  county  and  their  reputations  are  already 
becoming  established  among  breeders  outside  of  the  state. 

Land  clearing,  livestock,  and  legumes,  are  the  three  L’s 
which  have  changed  the  timber  and  the  “ cutover’ ’ country 
into  developed  farms  and  homes.  Wisconsin  is  only  beginning 
to  develop  her  untamed  empire,  but  in  it  she  has  rich  resources 
whose  value  as  yet  can  only  be  estimated. 

For  the  new  settler  who  comes  from  the  prairie  states  or 
has  been  accustomed  to  land  altogether  different  in  quality,  the 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


o 


Stations  Spread  Farm  News 

work  at  the  branch  stations  has  been  a boon  and  has  saved  many 
a farmer  from  making  what  would  have  been  costly  errors. 

Each  of  these  soil  types  needs  special  study.  The  problem 
is  to  develop  sand  crops  for  the  sand  farmer,  clay  crops  for  the 
clay  farmer  and  marsh  crops  for  the  marsh  farmer.  Each  ex- 
periment station  is  the  center  for  the  distribution  of  agricul- 
tural information  and  knowledge  which  has  been  collected,  and 
proved  in  actual  farm  practice.  Demonstrations  are  held  annu- 
ally at  the  respective  branch  stations  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. Last  fall  at  Spooner  (August  4,  1920)  over  1,500  persons 
attended  a demonstration  where  the  speakers  used  as  their 
texts  the  results  of  various  experiments  conducted  on  the  farm. 
A three-day  school  at  Marshfield  was  visited  by  over  3,000 
persons  from  the  surrounding  counties,  some  coming  in  groups 
encouraged  by  their  county  agents,  others  singly  with  their 
families,  and  all  anxious  and  ready  to  learn  new  things  in  fan 
ing.  In  1920  over  400  samples  of  small  grains,  corn,  peas  and 
beans  were  shown  at  the  Ashland  mid-winter  grain  shows. 
Over  $300  was  contributed  by  private  individuals  and  firms  for 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


premiums.  Visits  from  individual  farmers  occur  almost  daily 
at  each  of  the  stations.  Some  of  these  men  are  prospective  set- 
tlers, others  are  seeking  information  on  various  matters  which 
have  arisen  in  their  own  farming  practice.  More  and  more  the 
farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  branch  stations  are  relying  upon 
the  work  of  the  scientist  in  verifying  results  and  recommending 
cultural  and  cropping  practices. 


FIG.  1.— MORE  CLEARED  ACRES  MEAN  SUCCESS 
Rail  fences  and  makeshift  shelters  are  only  stepping-stones  to  prosperity 


The  following  stations  have  been  located  since  1909 : (See 

map  inside  first  page). 

At  Ashland  Junction,  four  miles  west  of  Ashland  in  1911 
on  the  heavy  red  clay  (Superior  type) . This  soil  is  characteristic 
of  3,000  square  miles  of  good  agricultural  land  tributary  to 
the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior  as  well  as  that  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  Lake  Michigan  shore  and  the  Green  Bay  pen- 
insula including  the  lower  Fox  River  valley.  One-hundred 
and  sixty  acres  of  wild  land  was  purchased  jointly  by  Bayfield 
and  Ashland  Counties  and  deeded  to  the  University.  To  this 
an  additional  tract  of  22  acres  was  added  later  by  purchase. 

At  Spooner  in  Washburn  County  was  located  the  sta- 
tion for  the  light  sandy  loam  types  that  are  so  largely  covered 
with  jack  pine  growth.  Over  5,000  square  miles  of  this  soil 
type  exists  in  the  northwest  and  northeast  sections  of  the  state. 
The  city  of  Spooner  donated  80  acres  of  such  soil  immediately 
adjacent  to  the  city  boundary  in  1909 ; an  additional  80  acres 
were  added  by  purchase  for  $1,200  in  1910. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


V 


In  clearing  this  land,  shelter  belts  were  left  on  three  sides 
of  the  field  to  lessen  wind  injury.  The  soil  is  quick  acting, 
subject  to  drought,  naturally  deficient  in  organic  matter  and 
phosphorous  and  more  or  less  acid.  Under  the  old  methods 
of  cultivation  such  soils  rapidly  deteriorate  and  the  initial  or- 
ganic matter  is  burned  out  so  that  wind  injury  is  increased. 
The  station  is  now  raising  legumes  as  a forage  crop  and  plow- 
ing under  the  stubble  as  one  means  of  building  up  the  nitrogen 
and  humus  content  of  these  soils  and  of  producing  excellent 
crops  of  corn  and  potatoes. 

The  Marshfield  Branch  Station  represents  the  large  area  of 
5,500  square  miles  of  silt  loams  (Colby  and  Kennan)  found  in 
central  north  Wisconsin.  On  this  heavy  and  fine  grained  soil, 
cultivated  crops  suffer  from  excess  of  moisture  unless  provision 
is  made  for  surface  drainge.  The  country  is  gently  rolling 
and  sweeps  along  in  a series  of  lowlying  hills  and  valleys. 
In  1912  Marshfield  and  Wood  County  realized  the  good  which 
would  come  from  an  investment  in  a branch  station  and 
purchased  80  acres  of  land  which  was  given  to  the  state. 
By  an  act  of  the  Legislature  in  1919  a supplementary  farm  of 
100  acres  was  purchased  for  $15,000.  This  station  lies  at  the 
southern  edge  of  the  Colby  silt  loam  and  because  of  the  fine 
grained  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  retentive  subsoil  offers  its 
major  problems  in  soil  and  fertilizer  treatments. 

Two  other  stations  have  recently  been  established  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  state.  These,  however,  are  supported  from  a 
separate  fund  and  are  on  leased  land.  They  have  not  been  in 
operation  long  enough  as  yet  to  warrant  presentation  of  experi- 
mental results. 

At  Hancock  in  Waushara  county  on  the  very  light  sand 
soils,  a 76  acre  farm  that  was  badly  depleted  in  fertility  has 
been  the  basis  of  soil  improvement  work  by  the  Soils  department. 

At  Coddington  in  Portage  county  a 40  acre  tract  of  acid 
peat  is  in  use.  These  locations  are  typical  of  5,000  square  miles 
of  sandy  soils  and  2,000  square  miles  of  marsh  lands  in  the  cen- 
tral and  upper  portions  of  the  state. 

Two  county  demonstration  stations  are  also  maintained 
where  the  work  is  purely  demonstrational.  The  work  of  the 
Marshfield  Branch  Station  on  the  Colby  silt  loam  is  car- 
ried to  the  Rusk  County  Demonstration  Station  at  Conrath  on 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


a very  similar  soil  type  (Kennan  silt  loam).  The  station  has 
been  in  operation  seven  years  and  has  been  used  as  a basis  for 
developing  seed  types  for  its  particular  region.  The  work  of 
the  Ashland  station  on  the  red  clay  is  carried  to  the  Douglas 
County  Demonstration  Station  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of 
Superior  on  a similar  soil  type  which  is  as  yet  inadequately 
drained. 


A STORY  IN  FACTS 

Since  1910  an  average  of  50,000  acres  have  been  cleared 
every  year  in  upper  Wisconsin.  Over  80,000  acres  were 
cleared  in  1920. 

More  than  12,000  new  farms  have  been  settled  in  upper 
Wisconsin  in  the  last  decade.  There  is  now  a total  of 
65,000  farms,  a more  phenomenal  growth  than  that  in  the 
prairie  states  during  the  land  boom. 

Upper  Wisconsin  in  1919  produced  37  per  cent  of  the 
field  peas,  34  per  cent  of  the  clover  and  timothy,  and  47 
per  cent  of  the  potatoes  grown  in  the  state. 

With  only  27  per  cent  of  the  tilled  farm  land,  upper 
Wisconsin  already  has  29  per  cent  of  the  total  dairy  cows  of 
the  state. 

Wisconsin’s  acreage  in  farm  land  has  increased  about 
1,000,000  acres  since  1910  but  nearly  600,000  of  that  new 
acreage  has  been  added  in  upper  Wisconsin. 

It  would  take  500  trainloads  hauling  40  cars  each  to 
carry  upper  Wisconsin’s  annual  potato  crop  to  market. 

Wisconsin  produces  over  60  per  cent  of  the  nation’s 
cheese,  while  the  upper  29  counties  alone  produce  22  per 
cent  of  the  nation’s  total. 

The  first  land  clearing  train  in  America  was  run  by 
the  College  of  Agriculture  in  1916. 

Upper  Wisconsin  already  has  as  many  dairy  cattle  for 
an  acre  of  improved  land  as  the  state  average  and  is  grow- 
ing rapidly. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


9 


LIVESTOCK  FOR  THE  SETTLER 


N ten  years  upper  Wisconsin  counties  have  in- 
creased the  number  of  milk  cows  over  200,000. 
While  1910  counted  a few  more  than  300,000 
animals,  1920  records  show  more  than  a half -mil- 
lion milk  cows  in  the  upper  29  counties  of  the 
state.  Ten  years  ago  the  silos  were  not  figured 
in  the  statistics;  today  there  are  nearly  20,000 
in  upper  Wisconsin.  Once  the  settler  is  estab- 
lished on  his  farm  and  sure  of  his  prospects,  he  builds  up  his 
dairy  as  he  drives  back  the  brush  line. 

Just  as  the  settler  is  compelled  to  start  with  grade  or  even 
scrub  cattle,  so  the  three  branch  experiment  stations  began.  At 
Spooner  in  1912  nine  cows  were  purchased — the  price  ranging 
from  $25  to  $75.  Work  was  begun  upon  this  rough,  native 
material  to  teach  upper  Wisconsin  settlers  the  value  of  pure- 
bred sires. 

At  Spooner  no  particular  effort  was  made  to  buy  excep- 
tional cows;  they  were  black,  red  and  even  blue-roan  and  were 
purchased  directly  from  settlers  or  from  men  in  the  county  at 
the  time.  Later  a Guernsey  sire  was  purchased  for  $150.  This 
sire  was  used  by  both  Conrath  and  Spooner  stations,  thereby 
saving  additional  costs,  and  also  showing  the  settlers  that  neigh- 
borhood sires  were  not  only  possible,  but  advantageous. 

Sixteen  grade  Holsteins  were  purchased  for  Ashland  in 
1915,  and  from  this  foundation  a demand  has  sprung  which  has 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


utilized  all  the  available  breeding  stock  that  could  be  spared 
from  the  station.  In  June  1920  the  mature  Holstein  bull,  Cres- 
cent De  Kol  Hengerveld  Prince  #187924,  which  had  been  in  the 
Ashland  herd  for  two  years,  was  sold  to  the  Chequamegon  Hol- 
stein Association  of  Ashland  to  become  a community  herd  sire, 
and  to  use  with  41  mature  purebred  Holstein  cows  imported 
by  that  Association  from  Dodge,  Washington  and  Jefferson 
counties.  The  branch  station  herd  has  been  an  actual  demon- 
stration to  the  upper  Wisconsin  settlers,  proving  to  them  not 
only  the  value  of  livestock,  but  the  possibilities  in  management. 
The  herds  are  managed  according  to  dairy  practices  recom- 
mended for  upper  Wisconsin  farmers.  They  serve  primarily 
to  teach  the  use  of  feed  grown  on  the  farm  including  roughage 
and  grains  not  suitable  for  seed  purposes.  To  the  visitors  and 
delegations  of  farmers  at  the  Station  Day  meetings,  demonstra- 
tions show  the  types  of  cows  and  the  methods  of  breeding  and 
feeding  which  make  dairying  more  profitable. 

While  progress  on  the  branch  station  farms  is  being  made 
in  establishing  purebred  families  of  cows  related  to  those  at 
the  Madison  station,  the  process  has  been  gradual.  Visiting 
farmers  were  given  feed  rations  for  cows  and  calves ; they  were 
given  access  to  the  record  of  production  and  learn  by  seeing 
the  value  of  purebred  sires.  A record  of  the  purebred  sire  cam- 
paign in  nine  counties  shows  increases  of  from  3 to  23  per  cent 
and  a.  total  of  965  bred-for-production  sires. 

The  herds  at  the  stations  have  always  been  tuberculin- 
tested  regularly,  and  this  practice  in  turn  has  been  reflected  upon 
the  countryside.  Barron  is  the  first  county  in  the  United  States 
to  be  completely  free  of  tuberculosis  infection  in  its  dairy  cows. 
Already  out-of-state  buyers  are  watching  this  pioneer  attempt 
with  interest,  and  undoubtedly  counties  desiring  to  keep  their 
reputation  will  also  be  compelled  to  test  their  herds. 

With  37  cow-testing  associations,  34  breeders’  organizations 
and  940  butter  and  cheese  factories,  upper  Wisconsin  shows  that 
it  has  “arrived”  as  an  important  dairy  region.  Farmers  often 
find  it  easy  and  profitable  to  pasture  their  cows  in  cut-over 
lands  of  the  farm  during  the  summer  and  feed  through  the 
winter  with  either  silage  or  some  root  crop.  Following  the 
p licy  of  the  Branch  Station,  many  farmers  are  now  making 
their  small  herds  the  foundation  for  purebred  families  of  cattle. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


11 


BETTER  SEEDS  GOSPEL 

OYBEANS  have  been  grown  in  southeastern  Asia, 
China,  and  Japan  for  hundreds  of  years  and 
in  those  regions  are  used  as  human  food.  Vege- 
table milks  and  flours  are  common  and  in  some 
districts  of  China  and  Japan  a special  sort  of 
cheese  and  a kind  of  bread  are  made  from  these 
beans. 

Here  in  this  country  soybeans  have  not  been 
used  for  human  food  (except  as  a war  measure),  but  the  bean 
has  proved  of  much  value  as  a feed  and  forage  for  animals. 
When  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  it  was  thought 
that  the  soybean  could  be  grown  only  in  the  warmer  central 
regions,  but  plant  breeding  has  again  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
farmer  and  in  upper  Wisconsin  acclimated  strains  have  now 
been  developed  that  can  be  cultivated  with  complete  success. 

Early  Black  No.  t,  a pedigree  strain  of  soybeans  developed 


FIG.  2.— SOYBEANS— A CHINESE  FORAGE  PLANT 
Adapted  to  Wisconsin  soils. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


at  Spooner,  has  yielded  22.6  bushels  an  acre  for  a five-year 
average.  The  value  of  this  crop  may  be  appreciated  when  it 
is  known  that  the  seed  sells  readily  for  $5  a bushel,  and  that  in 
addition  soybeans  are  legumes  which  add  materially  to  the 
nitrogen  supply  in  the  soil.  While  over  50  varieties  have  been 
on  test,  Early  Black  still  is  in  the  lead.  It  grows  to  a very 
good  height,  yields  abundantly  and  retains  its  leaves  until  it  is 
fully  mature.  The  crop  is  especially  adapted  to  the  lighter 
soils  but  it  also  grows  well  on  the  silt  loams. 

Soybeans  Build  Up  Sandy  Lands 

Green-manuring  trials,  using  either  soybeans  or  serradella 
for  growth  of  green  material,  have  proved  very  successful  under 
the  supervision  and  care  of  F.  L.  Musbach.  Plots  at  Spooner 
cover  a four-acre  field  of  sandy  loam  which  was  subdued  in 
1914;  and  the  rotation  consists  of  two  cultivated  crops,  one 
hay  and  one  grain  crop.  No  stable  manure  or  fertilizers  of 
any  kind  were  used,  and  the  fields  are  laid  out  in  a four-year 
rotation  of  corn,  potatoes,  oats  and  clover — a field  of  each  yearly. 

In  this  method  no  crop  is  grown  for  the  simple  purpose  of 
plowing  under,  but  the  green  manuring  crop  is  planted  with 
the  corn;  the  corn  is  harvested  for  the  silo  and  the  green  ma- 
terial is  then  plowed  under.  Corn  is  planted  in  rows  4 feet 
apart  and  the  soybeans  or  serradella  planted  between  the  com 
rows.  Plow  lands  are  laid  out  across  the  rows  and  a chain  is 
used  on  the  plow  in  order  to  help  distribute  the  green  vines  in 
the  soil.  This  cropping  system  has  reduced  the  yield  of  corn 
only  one-third,  while  it  has  increased  the  oat  yield  18  bushels 
an  acre  following  soybeans,  and  15  bushels  following  serradella. 
Clover  has  averaged  an  increase  of  15  per  cent  for  four  years, 
and  potatoes  have  increased  an  average  of  5%  bushels  an  acre. 
In  1920,  oats  planted  in  this  rotation  yielded  63  bushels  while 
in  a rotation  where  no  legume  was  used  in  the  corn  it  yielded 
only  36  bushels  an  acre. 

In  such  a rotation  soybeans  offer  one  of  the  ways  by  which 
the  organic  matter,  and  thus  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 
soil,  can  be  increased.  Soybeans  aid  the  farmer  who  has  only 
a limited  amount  of  manure,  who  does  not  wish  to  lose  the  use 
of  his  and  for  a year  and  yet  wants  to  build  up  the  organic 
matter  in  his  soil— thereby  laying  the  basis  for  a permanent 
agriculture  and  better  crops  on  his  farm.  Soybeans  again  show 
themselves  the  friend  of  the  farmer  of  light  soils. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


13 


Grain  On  New  Seeding  Kills  Clover  Catch 
Poor  catches  of  clover  often  result  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  start  new  seeding  by  planting  it  with  grain  because  of 
the  low  water-holding  capacity  of  some  of  the  sandy  soils.  The 
more  rapid  growth  of  the  grain  crop  robs  the  young  clover 
plants  of  their  necessary  moisture  and  they  die  from  drouth 
starvation.  The  best  remedy  to  overcome  this  defect  is  either  to 
sow  the  clover  alone  without  a grain  crop  or  to  cut  the  grain 
crop  for  hay  when  it  is  nearly  all  headed.  If  the  rainfall  is 
abundant  the  grain  may  be  allowed  to  ripen,  but  more  failures 
occur  through  the  drying  out  of  the  young  plants  than  from 
any  other  reason. 


fig.  3.— knee  deep  in  clover  at  the  superior 
demonstration  station 

No  wonder  this  country  is  known  as  “C’loverland.” 

Rye  On  Unplowed  Land 

Rye  is  sometimes  called  the  poor  land  crop  because  it  is 
so  dependable.  This  reputation  has  been  admirably  kept  at 
both  the  Spooner  and  Ashland  stations.  The  difficulty  is  encoun- 
tered in  an  attempt  to  plow  the  land  during  the  busy  fall  season 
of  the  corn  and  potato  harvest  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  work 
out  a new  method  of  procedure.  One  method  is  to  sow  the 
grain  without  plowing  on  the  corn,  potato,  or  soybean  stubble. 
Another  way  is  to  broadcast  the  rye  in  soybeans  .just  before  the 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


last  cultivation.  Very  little  labor  is  required  in  this  manner  and 
yields  of  30  to  40  bushels  an  acre  have  been  obtained.  Under 
general  conditions  of  the  lighter  soils,  land  should  never  be 
plowed  unless  the  ground  is  in  grass. 

Wisconsin  Needs  Hardy  Alfalfa  Seed 
Seed  from  alfalfa  plants  which  have  been  growing  on  a 
sand  hill  at  Ellis  Junction  for  ten  years  produced  plants  which 
have  not  winterkilled  in  eight  years.  Freaks  like  this  often 
occur  in  alfalfa,  however,  and  fields  exist  in  Wisconsin  today 
which  have  been  growing  alfalfa  for  over  20  years.  Over  100 
selections  have  been  made  from  the  seed  of  the  Ellis  Junction 
plants  and  while  seed  from  them  will  eventually  be  distributed 


FIG.  4.— ALFALFA  TALKS  AT  SPOONER 
Legumes  help  light  soil  farmers  build  up  the  humus  content. 

throughout  the  state,  the  immediate  problem  is  to  obtain  hardy 
seed  for  present  use. 

Seed  has  been  produced  successfully  at  Spooner ; and  Grimm 
alfalfa  yielded  2 bushels  of  seed  an  acre.  This  permits  a rea 
sonable  return,  although  it  does  not  compare  with  the  yields 
obtained  by  western  growers.  Seed  production  depends  upon 
the  dryness  of  the  air  at  blossoming  time.  The  problem  of 
working  out  a method  which  would  enable  us  to  produce  our 
own  seed  and  thus  insure  the  planting  of  hardy  acclimated 
varieties  of  alfalfa  is  of  much  importance  to  Wisconsin. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


15 


Lake  Superior  Winter  Wheat  Belt 

Winter  wheat  has  generally  given  a larger  yield  than 
spring  wheat  and  its  growing  has  been  encouraged.  A ten- 
year  average  shows  that  winter  wheat  yielded  20.5  bushels 
while  spring  wheat  averaged  only  18.5  bushels  an  acre  for  the 
state  at  large.  Whether  in  upper  or  lower  Wisconsin  the  effect 
has  been  the  same,  and  encouragement  has  continually  been 
given  toward  using  winter  instead  of  spring  wheat  varieties. 

The  red  clay  of  the  Ashland  region  has  offered  a surprise. 
The  work  of  the  experiment  station  shows  that  Bayfield, 
Ashland,  Douglas  and  Iron  Counties  form  a new  winter  ivheat 
belt.  This  belt  has  today  excellent  seed  wheat  of  the  pedigreed 
varieties.  The  pedigreed  strains  have  proved  far  superior  to 
the  common  strains  year  after  year.  Tests  at  the  Ashland 
station  show  that  Bacska  No.  408  yielded  51.0  bushels  an  acre 
while  the  unimproved  Kharkoff 
yielded  only  34.1  bushels  an  acre. 

Bacska  wheat  has  averaged  31 
bushels  an  acre  at  Ashland  for 
seven  years,  but  two  other  pedi- 
greed strains  developed  at  Ash- 
land surpass  it — No.  11837  with 
34.2  bushels  and  No.  11825  with 
32.4  bushels  average  for  seven 
years.  These  yields  are  nearly 
double  that  of  the  spring  wheat 
for  the  same  period. 

Pedigreed  Early  Java  High 
Yielding  Spring  Wheat 

While  the  winter  wheat  varie- 
ties have  been  the  highest  yield- 
ers  at  Marshfield,  and  bear  out 
results  obtained  at  the  other  sta- 
tions, a new  variety  of  spring 
wheat  has  been  bred.  Planting 
winter  wheat  after  corn  is  often 
impossible,  and  therefore  in  a FIG-  5-  WHEAT  bred  to  resist 
rotation  calling  tor  wheat  after  The  variety  in  the  center  is  se- 
corn,  a spring  variety  is  needed.  oSuiL  ^SiItedkiw1nUJh<inju?y.  the 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


At  Marshfield  the  new  strain  of  Early  Java,  M 1611, 
yielded  twice  as  much  an  acre  as  its  parent  and  was  very 
much  superior  in  quality.  The  whe/at  proved  much  more 
resistant  to  rust  and  other  diseases  than  the  Marquis  and 
Durum  wheats.  On  a soil  of  medium  fertility,  a three  acre 
plot  yielded  19  bushels  an  acre.  In  1921  it  is  proposed  to 
grow  Early  Java  Pedigree  on  more  plots  and  thus  prepare  to 
disseminate  the  seed  the  following  year. 


FIG.  6. — STATION  DAY  AT  ASHLAND  BRANCH  STATION 
Eight  years  ago  this  was  a cut-over  wilderness — now  it  is  a fully 

developed  farm. 


Peas  Produce  at  Ashland 

Twelve  years  ago  the  Experiment  Station  at  Madison  began 
work  with  peas  under  the  direction  of  R.  A.  Moore.  When 
the  branch  station  was  purchased  at  Ashland,  however,  all 
of  the  breeding  work  tending  to  improve  the  old  varieties  or 
to  introduce  new  ones  was  transferred  to  that  station  under 
the  direction  of  E.  J.  Delwiche.  The  cool  climate  in  the  northern 
section  of  the  state  makes  this  region  especially  adapted  to 
peas.  Over  250  varieties  and  strains  are  now  on  trial  but  only 
a very  few  will  warrant  selection  and  distribution  to  growers. 
Trials  have  been  carried  along  with  both  soup  peas  and  can- 
ning varieties,  and  several  hundred  acres  of  the  new  pedigree 
varieties  are  now  being  planted  in  upper  Wisconsin.  While 
only  30  per  cent  of  Wisconsin’s  farms  lie  north  of  a line 
drawn  west  from  the  lower  boundary  of  Door  County  to  the 
southern  boundary  of  Pierce,  that  area  now  produces  37 
per  cent  of  Wisconsin’s  dried  peas. 

Trials  with  field  peas  at  Ashland,  where  the  pedigreed 
peas  were  compared  with  the  common,  showed  the  advantages 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


17 


of  breeding  work.  The  common  stock  produced  37.3  bushels 
of  Green,  32.9  bushels  of  White  Marrowfat,  33.6  bushels  of 
Small  Yellow  and  31.4  bushels  of  Scotch,  while  the  pure  line 
varieties  of  the  same  produced  50.0  bushels,  36.5  bushels,  38.0 
and  50.0  bushels  an  acre  respectively  for  the  same  varieties  in 
the  season  of  1920. 

The  increase  ranged  from  11  per  cent  for  the  White 
Marrowfat  to  59  per  cent  for  the  Scotch,  while  the  Green 
increased  34  per  cent  and  the  Small  Yellow  14  per  cent  over 
the  common  strains.  This  shows  the  results  which  may  be 
obtained  from  selection  of  seed  and  by  the  pedigreeing  of 
those  varieties  which  show  promise.  Not  only  has  selection 
increased  the  value  of  the  crop  but  better  quality  is  obtained 
from  pure  line  seed.  The  acre  yields  for  Ashland  on  the  two 
most  prominent  varieties  have  been  22.6  bushels  for  Green, 
and  22.9  bushels  for  Scotch  during  the  ten  years  from  1908 
to  1919.  At  Superior  the  aver- 
age acre  yield  for  eight  years 
has  been  21  bushels  for  soup  va- 
rieties and  19  bushels  for  sweet 
wrinkled  canners.  At  the  Rusk 
County  Demonstration  Station 
the  Green  variety  averaged  20y2 
bushels  an  acre  for  the  last  six 
years.  A general  average  plac- 
ed the  yield  of  the  pedigree  va 
rieties  five  bushels  more  an  acre 
than  the  yield  of  the  state  for 
the  same  period.  When  they 
prove  reliable,  new  strains  will 
be  sent  out;  Ashland  and  Su- 
perior stations  now  have  150 
bushels  of  seed  which  will  be  dis- 
tributed in  1921. 


Peas  for  Canning  Industry 


The  growing  of  seed  peas 
for  the  southern  canneries  is  fig.  7 
a great  opportunity  for  upper 
Wisconsin  until  the 


BETTER  CANNING  PEAS 
FOR  WISCONSIN 
Heavy  yield,  even  maturity  and 
disease  resistance  are  the  cardinal 
estdDIlsn  points  for  canners. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


SHELTER  BELTS  OF  TREES 


ment  of  canning  factories.  At  present  the  greater  part  of 
the  seed  is  shipped  into  the  state  yearly  but  the  results  of  a 
test  with  a cross  of  the  Horsford  and  the  Alaska  show  good 
seed-producing  possibilities  and  a resistance  to  root  rot.  This 
disease  has  caused  much  damage  during  the  last  few  years. 
The  new  cross  grew  vines  more  than  2 feet  high  while  the 
Horsford  parent  hardly  reached  the  growth  of  6 inches.  The 
Badger  and  the  Horal  are  two  new  sweet  wrinkled  canning 
peas  which  mature  early,  are  prolific,  and  ripen  more  evenly 
than  any  other  varieties  so  far  tested. 

Two  canning  factories  have  beeen  established  in  upper 
Wisconsin,  due  to  the  stimulus  given  the  pea  industry  by  work 
at  Ashland.  The  owners  at  Marengo  and  Merrill  are  enthu- 
siastic; and  the  factories  have  been  such  a success  that  in  the 
future  more  canning  factories  will,  no  doubt,  be  started  on  the 
virgin  soils  in  the  vicinity  of  Superior  and  Ashland.  This  new 
field  for  peas  shows  that  while  Wisconsin  is  already  canning 
more  than  one-half  the  nation’s  peas,  she  has  available  an  upper 
empire  which  can  be  cultivated  to  produce  more  than  enough 
peas  to  fill  the  7,000  miles  of  pea  cans  now  packed  every  year  in 
her  factories. 


I 

PREVl 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


19 


Windbreaks  For  Spooner  Station 

Drifting  sands  are  one  of  the  drawbacks  encountered  in 
farming  light  soils.  Drifting  does  not  occur  every  year,  but 
still  is  rather  frequent.  When  it  does  occur,  serious  injury 
results  to  grains  and  especially  to  new  stands  of  clover.  The 
work  carried  on  at  Iron  River  in  Bayfield  County  on  Plainfield 
sand,  as  well  as  the  experience  of  farmers  in  central  Wisconsin, 
have  clearly  shown  the  necessity  for  protection  from  drifting. 

When  the  Experiment  Station  at  Spooner  was  established 
a plan  was  worked  out  to  study  the  effect  of  windbreaks  on  the 
drifting  of  the  soil.  The  land  was  originally  timbered  with  a 
growth  of  jack  pine  and  scrub  oak  but  when  it  was  cleared 
narrow  strips  of  timber  were  left.  These  strips  were  20  rods 
apart  east  and  west  and  about  the  same  distance  north  and 
south.  The  results  have  been  very  satisfactory.  Strong  winds 
which  have  caused  considerable  damage  in  unprotected  localities 
have  had  practically  no  effect  on  clover — one  of  the  essential 
crops  on  light  solis.  Checking  with  exposed  locations  showed 
clearly  that  the  timber  strips  saved  the  clover  by  preventing 
sand  blowing  in  summer  and  retaining  snow  in  winter.  Any 
winter  killing  that  occurred  was  at  the  greatest  distance  east 


hnd 


BLOWING 


OF 


LIGHT 


SOILS 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


of  the  protective  strips  of  timber.  Work  with  clover  in 
check  plots  did  not  show  any  difference  in  yield  of  crops — 
the  new  strips  as  against  those  at  a greater  distance. 

The  beneficial  results  from  protective  timber  strips  show 
their  importance  in  the  management  of  light  soils.  Shelter 


lf®yg 

fig.  8.— combination  crib  and  silage 

Wisconsin  No.  25  leads  the  corn  belt  by  20  bushels  an  acre 
higher  average  yield. 

belts  may  best  be  left  when  the  farms  are  laid  out  but  if  the 
land  has  already  been  cleared,  jack  pine  may  be  grown  with 
ease  and  rapidity  on  these  light  soils. 

New  Corn  For  Upper  Wisconsin 
With  the  expansion  of  the  dairy  business  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin has  come  the  need  for  a corn  which  will  provide  adequate 
forage  for  this  region.  For  several  years  experiments  aimed 
to  improve  the  type  of  corn  have  been  conducted  at  the  branch 
stations.  Efforts  were  made  to  secure  early  maturity  of  a type 
having  a sufficiently  large  stalk  to  be  suitable  for  silage,  yet 
which  would  ripen  with  certainty  each  year  so  as  to  produce  crib 
corn  where  the  season  was  short  or  rather  cold.  While  stand- 
ard varieties  of  Wisconsin  No.  7,  No.  8,  and  No.  12  are  of 
particular  value  for  silage  purposes  and  can  be  recommended 
highly  for  many  localities,  they  do  not  mature  early  enough 
for  widespread  use  in  all  upper  counties.  The  new  cold-re- 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


21 


sistant  corn  has  done  much  to  carry  the  corn  belt  farther  north, 
but  it  has  remained  for  a new  dent,  Wisconsin  No.  25,  to  com- 
bine the  qualities  of  a erib  and  silage  corn. 

Wisconsin  No.  25.  This  was  produced  from  a cross  be- 
tween Wisconsin  No.  8 and  a small  but  very  early  matur- 
ing yellow  dent  which  has  been  succesfully  grown  in  the 


FIG.  9.— CHIPPEWA  FLINT  FROM  THE  INDIANS 
A new  flint  corn  which  averaged  67  bushels  an  acre  for  three  years  at 
Ashland  Branch  Station. 

cool  summer  climate  on  the  Lake  Michigan  shore.  After  nine 
years  of  work  a new  strain  has  been  developed,  and  at  the 
Spooner  station  this  variety  has  been  found  to  ripen  within 
100  days.  A good  stand  produces  60  to  90  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  to  the  acre,  or  20  bushels  more  than  the  average  corn  belt 
production  in  the  central  states.  This  variety  is  often  ripe  enough 
to  permit  seed  selection  on  August  23,  may  be  fully  ripe  August 
30,  and  yet  produces  8 to  15  tons  of  silage  an  acre.  For  seven 
years  No.  25  averaged  57.4  bushels  an  acre,  a yield  of  22  bushels 
more  an  acre  than  the  state  ten-year  average  of  35.4  bushels. 
So  extensive  has  been  the  seed  dissemination  that  it  is  estimated 
over  4,000  acres  of  Wisconsin  No.  25  are  now  raising  the  crop 
yields  of  the  Spooner  area  in  upper  Wisconsin. 

Chippewa  Flint.  A still  earlier  maturing  variety  of  corn 
suitable  to  all  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  found  in  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  state,  is  the  small  but  well-eared  variety  of 
flint  corn  developed  through  hybridizing  and  subsquent  selec- 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


tion.  The  parent  stocks  used  in  this  breeding  work  were  two 
strains  of  pure  white  flint  corn  secured  from  the  Bad  River 
Indian  Reservation  (Ashland  County)  in  northern  Wisconsin 
and  the  White  Earth  Reservation  in  northern  Minnesota, 
where  they  had  each  been  grown  for  many  years  by  the  Indians 
on  these  reservations.  This  corn  is  somewhat  low  in  height, 
ranging  from  5 to  6y2  feet,  grows  generally  two  ears  to  the 
stalk,  the  average  weight  of  ears  being  about  two-thirds  of 
that  of  Wisconsin  No.  25.  Under  good  soil  conditions  the  yield 
of  this  corn  on  the  Ashland  Station  (heavy  red  clay)  was  about 
80  bushels  an  acre.  Over  a period  of  three  years  the  new  corn 
gave  an  average  yield  of  67.1  bushels  of  shelled  corn  an  acre 
while  the  average  yield  in  the  state  at  large  during  the  same 
period  was  only  42.0  -bushels  an  acre.  While  this  variety  is 
small  for  silage  purposes,  it  is  suitable  for  crib  corn  and  is  well 
adapted  to  be  hogged  off  because  of  the  low  height  of  the  ears. 
Chippewa  Flint  is  the  name  given  to  this  newly  domesticated 
and  pedigreed  Indian  corn  and  with  its  distribution  in  1921  will 
be  completed  the  list  of  corn  varieties  for  the  entire  state  of  Wis- 
consin. 

Spreading  The  Use  of  Purebred  Seeds 
The  Spooner  station  has  been  the  distribution  center  for 
purebred  seeds.  Seed  from  the  strain  of  Triumph  potatoes, 
grown  originally  by  J.  W.  Smith  of  Kent,  and  other  vari- 
ties  also  have  been  sent  to  all  sections  of  the  state.  Soybeans 
bred  at  Spooner  have  been  sent  to  growers  throughout  this 
and  adjoining  states.  One  of  the  largest  producing  soybean 
centers,  Stevens  Point  district,  got  its  start  from  Spooner.  Out- 
of-state  and  in-state  corn  growers  have  purchased  seed  of  Wis- 
consin No.  8 and  Wisconsin  No.  25  corn.  Some  of  the  No.  25 
has  been  shipped  to  Washington  and  Idaho.  Pedigree  1219  rye, 
one  of  the  hardiest  ryes  grown,  was  largely  disseminated  through 
this  branch  station ; and  the  best  strains  of  Pedigree  No.  5 and 
Pedigree  No.  2 oats  have  been  distributed  among  farmers  and 
seedsmen.  The  only  limitation  which  has  confronted  the  station 
is  the  ability  to  produce  more  seed,  but  even  at  present  about 
800  acres  of  oats,  soybeans,  No.  25  corn,  and  potatoes,  are  planted 
each  year  from  seed  furnished  by  the  Spooner  station.  From 
these  acres  other  farmers  procure  seeds  and  thus  the  pedigreed 
varieties  spread  from  community  to  community  throughout 
upper  Wisconsin. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


23 


Better  Oats 

While  winter  wheat  and  peas  have  given  excellent  results  at 
Ashland  other  grains  have  not  been  neglected.  A new  strain  of 
oats  No.  1214  has  outyielded  Pedigree  No.  4 (Early  Gothland)  by 


FIG.  10.— A HEAVY  YIELDER  NOT  SUBJECT  TO  LODGING 
To  mature  well,  wheat  must  develop  straw  stiff  enough  to 
prevent  lodging. 


8 bushels  an  acre  for  a six-year  average.  In  1920,  however, 
Early  Gothland  outyielded  all  other  varieties  and  in  spite  of 
a season  favorable  to  rank  growth  showed  very  little  lodging. 
So  far,  Early  Gothland  seems:  especially  adapted  to  upper  Wis- 
consin. 

Cloverland 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  grow  alfalfa  at  Ashland. 
While  it  pays  to  sow  the  crop  on  well  drained  slopes  where 
water  will  not  stand  during  the  winter  months,  and  while  it 
produces  nearly  a ton  more  an  acre  than  does  red  clover,  still 
clover  is  to  be  recommended.  Alfalfa  is  sensitive  to  excessive 
moisture,  while  clover  grows  like  a weed  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  clover  seed  industry  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  was 
started  directly  by  the  station.  A clover  huller  was  loaned  to 
the  farmers  at  the  cost  of  labor.  As  a result,  clover  seed 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


growing  is  well  established  in  the  upper  counties.  Foxboro 
in  Douglas  County  is  the  center  of  Alsike  seed  production 
while  the  territory  near  Ashland  is  noted  for  its  medium 
red  seed. 

Peas,  wheat,  rye,  and  oat  strains  have  been  produced  on 
the  station  and  their  seed  disseminated  to  the  farmers  just  as 
soon  as  enough  is  produced  and  the  success  of  the  crop  is 
assured.  Every  season  enough  seed  is  sold  to  plant  over  600 
acres.  Most  of  this  goes  to  a new  set  of  growers,  thereby  en- 
larging the  pure-seed  producing  territory  annually. 

Over  500  Train  Loads  of  Potatoes 


If  the  potatoes  raised  in  upper  Wisconsin  during  the  year 
1920  were  loaded  on  cars  it  would  take  500  trains  hauling  40 
cars  each  to  carry  them  to  market.  While  the  total  potato 
acreage  of  Wisconsin  in  1920  was  305,000  acres,  probably 
50,000  acres  of  this  area  had  never  before  been  planted  with 
potatoes.  Potatoes  are  a common 

crop  yet  it  is  estimated  that 

from  3,000  to  5,000  men  under- 
took to  grow  them  in  Wiscon- 
sin during  1920  without  previ- 
ous experience  in  growing  and 
handling  the  crop  under  Wiscon- 
sin conditions. 

Inexperienced  men  need  help 
if  they  are  to  be  successful  in 
growing  potatoes  on  new  acres. 

Of  the  three  branch  experiment 
stations  in  upper  Wisconsin  no 
one  is  better  suited  to  study  po- 
tato raising  than  the  one  at 
Spooner.  It  has  been  organized 
to  furnish  practical  information 
for  those  who  are  developing 
this  industry  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin counties.  The  study  of  the 
potato  problem  and  actual  ex- 
perience in  field  extension  work 

shows  that  information  IS  Potatoes  are  one  of  the  cash  crop 
needed : friends  of  the  new  settler. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


2h 


1.  In  the  selection  of  varieties  for  special  soil  and  cultural 

conditions ; 

2.  In  storing,  handling  and  treating  seed  potatoes  prior  to  the 

planting  date ; 

3.  In  the  choice  of  equipment,  including  machinery,  sprayers 

for  vine  poison  and  spray  mixture; 

4.  In  fertilizing  and  handling  northern  soils  consistent 

with  rotation  and  maintenance  of  fertility. 


FIG.  12.— BETTER  POTATOES  FROM  CERTIFIED  SEED 
A field  of  Burbank  Certified  Seed  on  trial  at  the  Spooner  Branch  Station. 

The  Right  Potato  for  the  Right  Soil 

For  ten  years  the  Spooner  station  has  grown  seven  varieties 
under  prevailing  field  conditions:  Rural  New  Yorker,  Burbank, 
Green  Mountain,  Early  Ohio,  Triumph,  Irish  Cobbler  and 
Early  Rose.  All  are  standard  varieties  of  recognized  merit 
and  available  to  the  grower. 

Not  only  yield,  type,  and  quality  have  entered  into  the 
study  of  potato  growing,  but  disease  resistance  has  also  been 
important.  Trials  over  a period  of  five  years  show  that  the 
Rural  New  Yorker  will  outyield  the  Green  Mountain  on  the 
Spooner  branch  station  about  30  bushels  an  acre.  The  records 
further  illustrate  that  in  size  of  tuber,  freedom  from  scab  and 
disease  resistant  quality,  the  Rural  New  Yorker  will  average 
better  over  the  same  period.  These  variations  show  that 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


hardiness  and  vigor  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker  and  its  resistance 
against  drought  make  it  particularly  adapted  to  the  light 
sandy  loam  characteristic  of  the  Spooner  station  and  of 
thousands  of  similar  acres  in  upper  Wisconsin. 

However,  on  the  cool,  deep,  fertile  sandy  loam  soils  of  upper 
Wisconsin  that  have  depth  and  body  and  are  retentive  of  mois- 
ture, the  Green  Mountain  grows  to  such  a high  degree  of  per- 
fection that  it  is  preferred  to  the  Rural  New  Yorker.  Due  to  the 
work  at  the  Branch  Station  it  has  been  possible  to  guide  the 
grower  in  the  choice  of  varieties  and  to  successfully  counsel  him 
against  any  investment  in  the  wrrong  kind  of  potatoes. 

Irish  Cobbler  Versus  Early  Ohio 

One  advantage  of  investigation  is  to  avoid  mistakes.  In 
1920  a potato  grower  in  upper  Wisconsin  planted  300  acres — 
150  acres  of  Triumph  and  150  acres  of  Irish  Cobbler  variety. 
The  Irish  Cobbler  crop  was  very  unsatisfactory,  and  after  an 
effort  of  three  years  to  grow  and  improve  the  variety  the  planter 
will  have  to  abandon  it. 

Ilis  results  are  identical  with  those  obtained  at  the  Spooner 
Branch  Station  with  Irish  Cobbler  and  Early  Ohio.  Although 
the  vine  growth  is  satisfactory  and  the  yield  good,  the  stock 
runs  coarse  and  inferior  in  both  type  and  quality.  The  desired 
type  of  the  Irish  Cobbler  is  a round,  somewhat  flattened  or 
blocky  tuber.  On  the  Spooner  station  a very  large  percentage 
of  the  tubers  were  elongated,  pear-shaped  and  resemble  what 
is  known  as  “Lady  Finger’’  specimens — types  especially  objec- 
tionable in  the  seed  trade.  Unsatisfactory  as  the  Irish  Cobbler 
is,  the  Early  Ohio  variety  has  shown  similar  extreme  variations 
as  well. 

While  field  inspection  records  show  good  Irish  Cobbler 
sections  in  Barron  County,  Langlade  County  and  in  other 
counties  where  heavier  types  of  potato  soil  prevail,  yet  as  a 
result  of  the  work  on  the  Spooner  station  it  has  been  possible 
to  advise  against  the  planting  of  Irish  Cobbler  and  Early  Ohio 
varieties  on  certain  light  sandy  soils  resembling  Spooner  types. 

Better  Handling  Methods 

Attention  has  been  given  to  providing  good  storage  for 
seed  potatoes,  to  exhibiting  desirable  farm  equipment  for 
treating  potatoes  and  handling  seed  stock  prior  to  planting, 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


27 


to  demonstrating  efficient  methods  of  handling  poisons  and 
spray  mixtures,  and  to  spraying  and  controlling  insects  and 
diseases. 

The  potato  storage  cellar  at  Spooner  has  a capacity  of 
2,500  bushels  of  seed.  It  cost  $1,500,  but  it  is  estimated  that 
150  growers  will  secure  foundation  seed  stock  from  this  cellar 
in  1921.  Practically  all  of  the  pure  Kural  New  Yorker  fields 
in  Taylor  County  last  year  were  planted  from  seed  originally 
secured  from  the  Spooner  station  five  years  ago  by  the  county 
agent.  By  securing  desirable  storage  facilities  it  has  been 
possible  to  disseminate  from  500  to  1,000  bushels  of  seed  a 
year,  and  in  most  cases  to  direct  this  seed  into  territory  where 
it  is  adaptable  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  community. 

In  a region  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  land  fitted 
and  seed  in  the  right  condition  to  plant  by  May  25,  desirable 
handling  equipment  is  important.  The  storage  cellars  contain 
inexpensive  equipment  such  as  crates  and  concrete  tanks  while  a 
sorting  room  has  been  provided  to  sort,  handle,  treat  and  cut 
seed  in  the  proper  manner  prior  to  the  planting  date. 

The  station  has  demonstrated  that  either  paris  green,  dry 
arsenate  of  lead,  arsenate  of  zinc,  or  calcium  arsenate  will  con- 
trol the  potato  beetle  if  sprayed  correctly;  and  that  the  most 
important  point  is  not  the  kind  of  poison  but  the  date  of 
application.  As  a result  of  these  demonstrations  potato  growers 
are  buying  better  equipment  and  using  better  methods  in 
handling  poison.  They  have  learned  the  importance  of  timely 
spraying,  application  of  the  maximum  amount  of  poison  per 
acre,  use  of  the  proper  kind  of  sprayer  and  nozzles;  and  the 
necessity  of  safeguarding  against  foliage  injury. 

Automobile  excursions  have  been  arranged  during  August 
and  September  to  the  Spooner  station  because  when  a man 
drives  out  to  visit  his  neighbors  he  learns  of  their  crop  condi- 
tions and  goes  back  inspired  to  do  better  work  or  to  maintain 
the  position  he  already  has.  The  Wisconsin  Potato  Growers  ’ 
Association  holds  a summer  meeting  at  Spooner  where  it  may 
study  all  the  important  strains  of  seed  potatoes  grown  under 
inspection  in  Wisconsin.  Experiments  followed  by  a demon- 
stration have  helped  upper  Wisconsin  growers  to  learn  the 
conditions  required  for  good  commercial  potato  production  in 
the  state.  Experiments  on  the  use  of  fertilizers,  spray  mix- 
tures, cultural  practices  and  the  selection  of  varieties  for  spe- 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


cific  conditions  have  been  followed  up  by  demonstrations  prov- 
ing the  points  considered. 

A Disease-Resistant  Potato  for  Southern  Markets 

Every  year  2,000,000  bushels  of  Triumph  seed  potatoes  are 
shipped  from  Wisconsin  to  southern  truck  centers.  Because 
northern  seed  is  generally  freer  of  disease,  northern  growers 
have  been  selling  their  crop  to  southern  gardeners  who  cater 
to  the  early  market. 

The  seed  from  Triumph  potatoes,  however,  which  had  yielded 
200  bushels  an  acre  in  upper  Wisconsin,  gave  only  mediocre 
yields  when  planted  by  the  Gulf  State  growers.  High  yielding 
strains  in  Wisconsin  grown  under  favorable  conditions  show 
from  50  to  100  per  cent  mild  mosaic.  The  crop  planted  from 
this  seed  in  the  South  may  develop  the  extreme  dwarf  type 
mosaic  and  give  very  poor  results. 

Other  potatoes  than  the  Triumph  have  shown  a weakness, 
but  this  particular  early  strain  has  shown  a decided  tendency 
to  become  diseased  with  potato  mosaic.  To  meet  the  problem 
20  strains  of  Triumph  gathered  from  upper  state  growers 
were  put  on  trial  at  Spooner  by  J.  G.  Milward,  cooperating  with 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  A wide  variation 
appeared  both  in  yield  and  in  amount  of  infection. 

Among  these  strains  was  one  obtained  from  J.  W.  Smith 
of  Kent,  Langlade  County,  which  proved  much  superior  to  all 
other  strains  in  both  1919  and  1920.  This  particular  selection 
showed  remarkable  resistance  to  mosaic.  Counts  on  mosaic 
with  this  strain  ran  as  low  as  2 per  cent  with  a maximum  of 
10  per  cent.  This  condition  is  exceptional  because  normally 
good  grades  of  Triumph  seed  often  show  from  30  to  40  per 
cent  infection  and  exceptionally  good  seed  may  contain  as 
much  as  15  per  cent  of  infected  tubers. 

The  resistant  strain  was  distributed  among  twenty  growers 
during  1920.  The  seed  stock  sold  in  the  fall  of  1920  at  $4.50 
a hundredweight,  and  about  three  carloads  are  available  for  1921 
planting. 

It  is  possible  that  within  three  years  all  of  Wisconsin’s 
fields  of  Triumph  potatoes  will  be  planted  from  this  single 
source  of  resistant  seed  stock;  and  continued  popularity  in  the 
southern  seed  market  will  be  insured. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


29 


Rutabagas  An  Economical  Crop 

Seven  different  tests  with  different  types  of  roots  show 
that  rutabagas  are  by  far  the  best  yielder  for  upper  Wisconsin 
conditions.  The  best  yielding  mangels  averaged  only  13.6  tons 
an  acre  while  the  rutabagas  yielded  22  tons  in  trials  carried 
on  at  Ashland,  Marshfield,  Superior,  and  Conrath. 

The  new  settler  can  hardly  afford  a silo  and  he  often  asks 
whether  he  can  not  raise  root  crops  which  will  take  the  place  of 


FIG.  13. — RUTABAGAS  ARE  SILAGE  SUBSTITUTES 
Fourteen  tons  of  feed  an  acre  of  rutabagas  as  compared  with  8.7  tons  an 
acre  of  corn  was  the  three-year  comparison  at  Ashland. 

silage.  Results  which  have  been  accumulated  for  several 
seasons  at  Ashland  and  Conrath  stations  show  that  rutabagas 
are  the  best  root  to  grow  and  can  be  grown  at  less  cost  per  ton 
than  corn.  The  trials  at  Ashland  were  on  the  red  clay  while 
those  at  Conrath  were  on  the  typical  soil  of  central  Wisconsin, 
the  Kennan  silt  loam. 

Labor  costs  were  calculated  and  the  cost  of  slicing  the  roots 
was  considered  as  well  as  those  of  filling  the  silo.  The  result 
was  that  in  a three-year  average  at  Ashland,  corn  cost  $5.35  a 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


ton  and  rutabagas  $4.06  a ton  to  grow  for  feed.  The  rutabagas 
yielded  14  tons  of  feed  while  the  corn  yielded  8.7  tons  an  acre. 
Still  more  striking  results  were  obtained  at  Conrath  for  there 
the  corn  cost  $5.49  a ton  and  yielded  9 tons  an  acre  on  a three- 
year  average  while  the  roots  cost  $2.51  a ton  and  yielded  20 
tons  of  roots  an  acre. 

These  results  show  that  rutabagas  are  an  economical  feed 
for  upper  Wisconsin,  especially  in  localities  where  corn  will  not 
mature  sufficiently  for  silage.  In  sections  where  large  yields 
of  corn  may  be  secured,  silage  usually  furnishes  succulent  feed 
more  economically  than  do  roots,  for  silage  from  well-matured 
corn  contains  nearly  twice  as  much  dry  matter  per  ton  as  ruta- 
bagas or  mangels. 


UPPER  WISCONSIN  IS  GROWING 

Over  92  per  cent  of  upper  Wisconsin  farmers  own 
their  own  farms  and  homes.  It  is  a country  of  landowners 
and  working  men  and  women. 

Cows  in  upper  Wisconsin  average  a return  of  $133 
a year.  With  504,000  milk  cows  in  this  cut-over  region, 
the  dairy  industry  alone  is  worth  $67,881,000  a year. 

Although  there  are  17,  651,000  acres  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin only  3,000,000  acres  are  yet  in  cultivated  crops  and  tame 
hays. 

In  four  years  county  agents  have  been  instrumental 
in  disposing  of  6,250,000  pounds  of  explosives  for  land 
clearing. 

Of  Wisconsin’s  root  crops,  67  per  cent  grow  in  the 
upper  29  counties. 

Wisconsin  is  larger  than  England  but  has  only  one- 
fourteenth  as  many  people. 

Only  3.4  per  cent  of  the  area  of  upper  Wisconsin  is 
more  than  10  miles  from  a railroad. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


31 


MARSHFIELD  BRANCH  STATION 

SOLVING  SOIL  PROBLEMS 


ESTING  fertilizer  to  find  out  if  Colby  soils  need 
more  than  manure  has  occupied  F.  L.  Musbach 
for  several  years.  The  fields  upon  which  the 
trials  were  made  at  Marshfield  had  been  cropped 
for  a period,  of  16  years,  and  the  original  owner 
had  manured  certain  parts  of  the  field  more 
heavily  than  others  so  that  the  results  were  not 
as  consistent  as  later  work. 

The  addition  of  phosphate  to  stable  manure  has  shown 
especial  advantages  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  manure  was 
produced  from  cows  fed  much  better  rations  than  they  get  on 
the  average  farm.  Not-  only  have  phosphates  brought  about 
higher  yields,  but  acid  phosphate,  which  has  given  perhaps  the 
best  results,  hastens  the  ripening  of  corn.  Corn  growing  on 
untreated  plots  was  only  2 y2  feet  high  on  July  20;  corn  on 
plots  wdiich  had  been  treated  with  10  tons  of  manure,  750  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  and  lime  was  5 feet  high  and  beginning  to 
tassel;  while  corn  growing  on  soil  treated  with  manure  and 
limestone,  and  manure,  rock  phosphate  and  limestone  was  only 
3!/2  feet  tall  at  the  same  time.  Rock  phosphate  showed  an 
advantage  over  the  untreated  plots,  but  the  acid  phosphate  was 
superior  with  its  growth  of  5 feet. 

With  10  tons  of  stable  manure,  750  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate, and  lime,  the  yield  of  corn  was  increased  12.7  bushels 
an  acre,  wheat  5.3  bushels,  and  oats  5.3.  The  first  and  second 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


crops  of  clover  together  were  increased  1,500  pounds  of  hay  an 
acre.  The  same  amount  of  manure  and  lime,  with  1,500  pounds 
of  rock  phosphate,  showed  an  increase  in  yield  for  the  same 


FIG.  14.— UNTREATED  PLOTS  FAIL  TO  THRIVE 
Corn  on  Marshfield  silt  loam  (July  20)  failed  to  produce  vigorous  healthy 
plants  without  some  fertilizer.  Compare  with  figure  15. 


length  of  time  of  11.0  bushels  an  acre  for  corn,  4.0  bushels  an  acre 
for  wheat,  5.3  bushels  for  oats  and  1,300  pounds  increase  for 
clover. 

Acid  phosphate  made  a better  showing  than  the  rock  phos- 
phate during  the  long  period  of  time  the  trials  were  conducted. 
The  use  of  gypsum  and  potash  did  not  pay,  but  lime  increased 
the  yields  of  every  crop  to  which  it  was  applied.  As  a result 
of  the  excellent  showing  of  lime  as  a soil  builder,  farmers  in 
the  adjoining  counties  have  been  purchasing  large  amounts  of 
lime.  One  particular  county  alone  has  applied  over  50  car- 
loads to  its  fields. 

Phosphates  and  Manure  at  Ashland 

The  clay  belt  around  Ashland  is  essentially  a section  in 
which  livestock  raising  and  dairying  will  be  important.  The 
growing  of  small  grains,  moreover,  has  been  particularly  profit- 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


33 


able.  The  grain  farmer  wants  to  know  how  he  can  best  use 
manure  and  fertilizer,  and  what  fertilizer  he  can  buy  to  give 
the  best  results  at  lowest  cost.  The  dairy  farmer  desires  to  make 


FIG.  15.— ACID  PHOSPHATE  HASTENS  GROWTH 
Ten  tons  manure,  lime  and  750  pounds  acid  phosphate  gave  twelve 
bushels  higher  average  yield  per  acre  than  on  the  untreated  soil. 

the  best  application  of  his  manure  and  at  the  same  time  to 
prevent  loss. 

Acid  phosphates  and  manure  used  together  have  given 
very  good  results.  Last  year  they  showed  their  adaptation  to 
oats  on  the  clay  soils  of  Superior.  Manure  with  375  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  increased  the  yields  17  bushels  an  acre  at 
Ashland,  while  manure  with  1000  pounds  of  rock  phosphate 
increased  the  yield  only  13.9  bushels  an  acre.  Manure  with 
500  pounds  of  rock  phosphate,  or  with  250  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate,  increased  the  yields  10  bushels  an  acre.  While  the 
trials  ran  only  a single  season  the  results  were  similar  to  those 
obtained  at  Marshfield.  Both  show  that  profitable  results  fol- 
low when  stable  manure  is  reinforced  with  phosphates. 

Tricks  With  Drain  Tile 

The  opinion  that  drain  tile  would  not  work  in  the  soils  of 
the  Colby  type  prevailed  for  a time.  In  order  to  obtain  full 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  332 


information  on  the  question  a tract  of  land  on  the  Marshfield 
Station  was  set  aside  for  the  study  of  tile  drainage. 

Surface  drainage  has  proved  very  useful  and  plot  lands 
have  been  so  laid  out  that  the  possibility  of  the  fields  draining 


FIG.  16. — BUILDING  UP  POOR  SOILS 
A coarse  sandy  soil  exhausted  by,  30  years’  continuous  cropping.  Shock 
of  corn  on  right  grown  on  untreated  soil.  By  plowing  under  green 
plant  residues  and  the  use  of  manure  even  these  worn-out  sands 
have  been  brought  to  grow  a 67  bushel  crop  of  corn. 

off  was  very  good.  Unless  some  form  of  surface  run-off  is 
provided,  heavy  losses  in  the  cultivated  crops  are  frequently 
caused. 

The  experimental  tiled  plots  were  so  laid  out  that  yields 
could  be  obtained  from  strips  of  land  at  various  distances  from 
the  tile.  The  general  results  show  that  due  to  the  heavy  soil, 
drainage  is  best  when  the  tile  is  not  over  3 rods  apart.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  tile  has  been  laid  4 rods  but  the  tests  show 
that  at  3 rods,  corn  was  increased  in  yield  12  per  cent  with 
slight  increases  continuing  as  the  distance  from  the  tile  de- 
creased. Corn  stover  was  similar  to  the  corn  grain  with  an 
increase  of  10  per  cent  at  3 rods  from  the  tile  as  compared 
to  the  yield  4 rods  from  the  tile.  Barley  seemed  to  be  little 
affected  until  it  reached  a distance  of  2 rods  from  the  tile. 
Then  it  showed  a 6 per  cent  increase  yield  over  the  farther  dis- 
tance of  4 rods.  Potatoes  showed  most  marked  results  in  yield,  5 
per  cent  at  3 rods,  10  per  cent  at  2 rods  and  20  per  cent  at  1 rod. 
Alfalfa  showed  little  preference  for  the  soil  at  3 rods  over  that 
at  4 rods,  but  at  2 rods  the  increase  was  6 per  cent. 


Farms  Follow  Stumps 


The  increase  in  the  yield  of  potatoes  has  been  the  most 
striking  of  any  crop,  although  corn  also  showed  good  returns. 
Alfalfa  indicated  no  decided  results  but  preferred  well  drained 
subsoils.  Four  rods  between  the  tile  is  certainly  too  far  ac- 
cording to  these  results.  Three  rods  gives  much  better  crops. 

Shall  We  Plow  Deep  or  Shallow? 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  hardpan  soil  in  much  of  the  Colby 
area,  it  was  a general  opinion  that  deep  pulverization  would 
permit  deeper  root  growth  and  thereby  increase  the  yields. 
Eight  years  ago  experiments  were  begun  at  Marshfield.  A series 
of  plots  were  set  aside  for  test  with  deep  tilling,  subsoiling,  deep 
fall  plowing,  shallow  fall  plowing,  and  spring  plowing. 

Deep  tilling  and  subsoiling  have  given  negative  results  so 
far  as  a general  rule.  Deep  fall  plowing  has  been  the  same 
except  with  corn  and  the  first  crop  of  clover.  Spring  plowing 
has  increased  the  yields  of  corn  and  oats  only  very  slightly. 

Light  Sands  And  Marsh  Soils 

Work  on  the  light  sandy  soils  at  Hancock,  Waushara  county,  was 
established  on  rented  land  in  1916.  When  taken  over,  the  land  had 
been  farmed  for  many  years  by  renters  and  was  about  as  low  in  fer- 
tility as  possible,  yielding  in  1915  only  five  bushels  of  rye  per  acre,  20 
to  25  bushels  of  corn,  and  about  75  bushels  of  potatoes.  These  very 
light  sandy  soils,  representing  large  areas  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
state,  are  also  represented  in  the  distinctively  jack  pine  plains  of  a 
number  of  the  northern  counties. 

Through  the  use  of  various  legume  crops  -at  Hancock  the  Soils 
department  has  already  been  able  to  build  up  the  soils  materially  so 
that  fair  crops  are  now  being  secured. 

Near  Coddington  on  the  Buena  Vista  drainage  project  located  in 
Portage  county  south  of  Stevens  Point,  a small  experimental  area  of 
40  acres  was  started  in  1919  on  the  acid  peat  soils  that  characterize 
much  of  the  marsh  areas  in  the  central  section  of  the  state. 

These  soils  often  lack  thorough  drainage,  are  low  in  mineral  plant 
food,  and  not  infrequently  are  injured  from  summer  frosts.  As  cen- 
tral and  upper  Wisconsin  have  fully  a million  acres  of  acid  peat  soils, 
it  is  of  much  importance  that  methods  be  worked  out  to  ascertain 
their  relative  values. 

Work  at  these  two  stations,  Hancock  and  Coddington,  is  fairly 
under  way,  but  sufficient  experimental  results  have  not  yet  been  se- 
cured to  warrant  presentation. 


wwm 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


333 


May,  1921 


DIGEST 


American  Foulbrood  is  the  most  serious  disease  of  bees  in  Wis- 
consin. It  is  a bacterial  disease  carried  in  the  honey  and  in  old  combs. 
Getting  rid  of  infected  honey  and  combs  means  the  eradication  of  the 
disease.  Pages  3-10 

Extracting  frames  should  not  be  saved.  Although  they  may  appear 
to  be  free  of  honey,  there  is  always  a possibility  of  a few  drops  of 
infected  honey  being  carried  over.  Page  11 

Scorching  hive  parts  does  not  insure  complete  disinfection.  Drops 
of  honey  may  be  left  behind  the  rabbets  or  smeared  on  the  outside 
of  the  hive  although  the  hive  may  be  carefully  scorched  on  the  inside. 

Page  12 

Treating  for  Foulbrood  must  be  carefully  done  to  insure  success. 

Careless  handling  of  diseased  colonies  is  sure  to  spread  infection. 

Pages  14-20 


How  to  Control  American 
Foulbrood 

H.  F.  Wilson. 

Ridding  Wisconsin  apiaries  of  foulbrood  is  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  beekeepers  themselves.  Through  co-operative 
effort  only  can  the  amount  of  disease  be  reduced  to  a mini- 
mum. In  counties  where  local  beekeepers’  associations  exist 
they  are  organizing  clean-up  campaigns  and  with  the  help  of 
the  state  apiary  inspector  are  getting  the  better  of  the  disease. 

Wisconsin  is  a beekeepers’  paradise,  for  failures  are  few 
and  almost  the  entire  state  is  covered  with  flowering  plants 
that  secrete  nectar  readily.  But  for  20  years  beekeeping  has 
suffered  from  a slowly-eating  cancer  that  at  one  time  threat- 
ened to  wipe  out  the  industry.  Between  1900  and  1918,  bee 
diseases  and  winter  losses  caused  a decrease  of  from  30  per 
cent  to  50  per  cent  of  all  colonies.  Shortly  before  1918  the 
interest  among  beekeepers  had  fallen  to  its  lowest  ebb  and  it 
was  a common  sight  to  see  hundreds  of  empty  hives  instead 
of  prosperous  and  productive  apiaries.  Fortunately  the  dis- 
ease situation  is  improving  and  American  foulbrood,  the  chief 
offender,  is  slowly  being  eradicated  through  better  inspection 
laws  and  more  educational  work. 

The  three  brood  diseases  of  bees  more  or  less  common 
in  Wisconsin  are  American  foulbrood,  European  foulbrood, 
and  sacbrood. 

American  foulbrood  occurs  wherever  it  has  been  carried 
either  by  human  agencies  or  by  the  bees  themselves.  Euro- 
pean foulbrood  and  sacbrood  do  not  occur  in  a virulent  form 
over  all  regions  of  the  state;  and  there  is  a direct  influence  of 
climate  and  nectar  secretions  on  both  of  these  diseases.  Sac- 
brood is  more  widespread  and  has  caused  more  trouble  this 
past  season  than  in  any  of  the  four  years  previously  observed. 
Its  range  does  not  appear  to  be  entirely  affected  by  the  same 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


factors  that  influence  European  foulbrood.  The  latter  disease 
is  found  more  or  less  in  all  sections  of  the  state,  but  occurs 
in  a highly  virulent  form  only  in  certain  areas  in  the  north- 
west, west,  and  northeast  parts  of  the  state.  Sacbrood  is  more 
or  less  sporadic  in  all  parts  of  the  state. 

Bacteria  Cause  American  and  European  Foulbrood 

White1  has  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  three  brood  dis- 
eases of  bees  known  as  American  and  European  foulbrood  and 
sacbrood  are  caused  by  bacteria.  The  bacteria  may  be  isolated 
and  the  disease  transmitted  in  the  laboratory  as  well  as  in  the 
field.  Sacbrood,  according  to  his  investigation,  is  caused  by 
a filterable  virus. 

Each  disease  develops  symptoms  peculiar  to  itself;  and 
when  these  symptoms  alone  are  present,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
determine  the  specific  disease.  Unfortunately,  however,  there 
are  several  other  bacteria  which  live  on  the  decaying  larvae 
and  sometimes  cause  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  American 
foulbrood  to  occur  with  European  foulbrood  and  sacbrood. 
This  often  leads  to  confusion  not  only  in  the  minds  of  inex- 
perienced beekeepers  but  to  experienced  men  as  well. 

Persons  of  the  widest  experience  are  often  misled  by  some 
unusual  symptoms.  The  only  sure  way  of  determining  the 
kind  of  disease  is  through  a microscopical  examination.  If  a 
beekeeper  finds  diseased  brood  in  a colony  and  does  not  know 
the  cause,  he  should  immediately  cut  out  a sample  and  send 
it  in  to  the  state  apiary  inspector  or  to  the  apiarist  at  the  state 
experiment  station. 

General  Symptoms  of  American  Foulbrood 

Sunken  cappings  often  punctured,  together  with  dead  larvae 
chocolate  brown  in  color,  are  symptoms  of  the  disease.  The 
larvae  cannot  be  removed  from  the  cell  but  string  out  when 
the  attempt  is  made.  When  the  disease  is  first  introduced  into 
a colony  (Fig.  1)  the  few  cells  which  occur  may  be  overlooked 
easily.  Just  after  death  the  larvae  are  a light  coffee  color 
which  gradually  becomes  darker.  Finally,  when  decay  is  well 
advanced,  the  larva  loses  its  shape  and  melts  down.  In  this 
stage  the  mass  is  quite  stringy  or  ropy.  As  it  dries  out  a scale 

1White,  G.  F.— Sacbrood:  Bui.  431,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.,  1917. 

American  Foulbrood:  Bui.  809,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.,  1920. 

European  Foulbrood:  Bui.  810,  U.  S .Dept,  of  Agr.,  1920. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


5 


is  formed  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
moved without  breaking  the  cell  wall.  In  examining  old 
combs  for  the  presence  of  these  scales,  they  should  be  tilted  at 
an  angle  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  cell  can  be  observed  and  the 
light  reflected  so  that  if  any  foreign  substance  is  present  it 
can  be  seen. 

The  disease  gradually  spreads  through  the  brood  nest  and 
normally  becomes  widespread  by  fall  (Fig.  2).  A colony 
usually  dies  out  completely  by  the  end  of  the  second  season 
or  is  so  weak  in  bees  that  it  dies  out  in  the  winter  or  early 
spring.  A very  distinct  and  disagreeable  odor  accompanies 
severe  cases. 

General  Symptoms  of  European  Foulbrood 

Larvae  usually  die  in  younger  stages  and  before  cells  are 
capped  over.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  some  cells  to  be  capped 
and  punctured  as  in  American  foulbrood.  This  confuses  the 
beekeeper;  and  samples  should  be  referred  to  some  authority 
for  identification.  The  disease  appears  worse  in  late  spring 
and  early  summer  when  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of 
larva.e  may  die  in  a few  weeks.  The  disease  becomes  less  se- 
vere as  the  season  advances  and  may  be  entirely  eliminated  by 
the  end  of  the  season  if  there  is  a good  honey  flow. 

The  dead  larvae  are  a greyish  yellow  at  first  and  later  turn 
to  a chocolate  brown.  They  melt  down  or  lose  shape  and  are 
found  mostly  at  the  back  of  the  cell.  The  scales  formed  by  the 
dead  larvae  are  mostly  loose  and  can  be  removed  by  the  bees. 
They  can  often  be  jarred  out  and  can  be  picked  out  without 
breaking  or  rupturing  the  cell  wall.  Older  larvae  break  down 
and  cannot  be  removed  entirely.  The  tissues  do  not  string 
out  like  the  larvae  in  American  foulbrood,  but  are  chunky  and 
have  the  consistency  of  cornstarch  pudding. 

General  Symptoms  of  Sacbrood 

Sacbrood  is  not  unlike  American  foulbrood  in  some  of  its 
stages  and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  it.  The  larvae  die 
after  the  cells  are  capped  and  the  bees  may  remove  the  entire 
capping  or  puncture  the  cells  as  in  the  case  of  American  foul- 
brood. There  is  a decided  difference  with  sacbrood,  however, 
in  that  larger  punctures  are  made  and  usually  only  one. 


FIG.  1.— HOW  AMERICAN  FOULBROOD  STARTS  IN  THE  BEE  COLONY 

The  white  circles  indicate  five  cells  in  which  the  larvae  are  dis- 
eased. No  other  cells  could  be  found  in  this  hive  at  that  time,  June 
10,  1919. 


PIG.  2.— ADVANCED  STAGES  OF  AMERICAN  FOULBROOD 
This  frame  was  removed  from  the  same  hive  shown  in  Fig-.  1,  July 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


In  American  foulbrood  there  may  be  two  or  three  very 
small  punctures ; and  the  cap  may  be  gnawed  but  not  entirely 
removed  except  in  minute  spots.  In  sacbrood  the  larvae  ob- 
served soon  after  death  have  a slight  yellowish  tinge  with  the 
front  end  slightly  darker.  The  back  part  of  the  body  may  re- 
main yellowish  for  some  time,  and  gradually  become  darker 
while  the  head  portions  turn  almost  black.  Often  the  larvae, 
observed  through  the  punctured  cappings,  appear  brown  with 
a reddish  tinge.  The  body  wall  of  the  larvae  does  not  break 
so  easily  as  in  the  other  diseases  and  the  larvae  may  be  re- 
moved from  the  cell  intact.  The  body  when  ruptured  appears 
as  a granular  mass  with  a more  or  less  watery  appearance. 
The  larvae  require  a much  longer  time  to  dry  down  and  the 
scales  do  not  remain  fast  to  the  cell  wall  as  in  American  foul- 
brood. 

How  the  Diseases  are  Spread 

Little  is  known  about  the  method  of  spread  for  European 
foulbrood  or  sacbrood,  but  both  of  these  diseases  may  appear 
suddenly  in  every  colony  in  a yard.  Package  bees  placed  on 
empty  drawn  combs  may  develop  the  disease  as  severely  as 
old  colonies.  In  1920,  package  bees  shipped  from  Texas  and 
placed  on  sheets  of  foundation  developed  both  diseases  be- 
tween May  1 and  June  1.  The  season  of  1920  was  favorable 
to  these  diseases  and  strong  colonies  suffered  in  the  same 
proportion  as  weaker  ones.  European  foulbrood  disappeared 
as  soon  as  the  honey  flow  began,  but  the  sacbrood  did  not  dis- 
appear until  the  honey  flow  was  nearly  over. 

The  spread  of  American  foulbrood2  from  one  state  to  an- 
other, or  over  widely  separated  areas,  is  due  to  shipping  dis- 
eased bees  and  infected  equipment  or  honey. 

Aside  from  buying  diseased  bees  and  bringing  them  into 
a disease-free  territory,  the  buying  of  used  hives  and  old  combs 
is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  things  a beekeeper  can  do.  As  a 
rule,  beekeepers  who  have  old  hives  or  combs  to  sell  without 
bees  have  lost  their  bees  through  disease.  Old  combs  from 
such  sources  are  almost  sure  to  carry  disease,  especially  if 
there  is  honey  in  them. 

Old  combs  from  a region  in  which  foulbrood  is  known  to 
occur  should  never  be  given  to  disease-free  bees. 

2Report  of  State  Entomologist  for  1917  and  1918.  Bui.  20,  Wis.  State 
Dep’t.  of  Agr. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


9 


Second  hand  hives  and  equipment  should  never  be  used 
without  first  scraping  and  washing  them  in  hot  lye  water. 

Spread  of  disease  locally  is  caused  by  exposing  infected 
honey  to  robber  bees  or  through  interchanging  infected  combs 
from  diseased  to  healthy  colonies.  When  the  disease  once 
appears  in  a yard,  immediate  measures  should  be  taken  to 
stamp  it  out.  No  risk  however  small  should  be  taken  by 
exposing  a diseased  colony  to  robbing;  and  diseased  colonies 
should  not  be  opened  at  all  during  brood  rearing  when  bees 
are  not  able  to  gather  nectar  in  the  field.  A single  drop  of 
honey  taken  from  a diseased  colony  may  be  sufficient  to  carry 
the  disease  to  a healthy  colony. 

After  the  honey  flow,  manipulation  of  diseased  colonies 
should  be  left  until  late  October  when  brood  rearing  has 
ceased.  The  danger  is  not  so  great  then  because  the  infected 
honey  will  nearly  always  be  put  in  the  center  of  the  brood  nest 
and  will  be  consumed  before  the  next  brood  rearing  period 
begins. 

Removal  of  Infected  Honey  and  Combs  Necessary 

There  is  but  a single  principle  involved  in  the  eradication 
of  American  foulbrood.  That  is  to  destroy  every  living  germ 
in  a hive  and  eliminate  all  sources  of  reinfection. 

A study  of  the  conditions  within  a diseased  colony  shows 
that  the  adult  bees  are  not  affected,  and  that  they  do  not  carry 
the  disease  except  in  the  distribution  of  honey  which  contains 
the  bacteria  or  spores.  When  all  germ-bearing  honey  and 
combs  are  removed  from  a colony  of  bees,  the  disease  dis- 
appears. 

A certain  amount  of  diseased  honey  is  carried  by  the  bees  in 
transferring  them  from  the  old  combs  to  sheets  of  foundation, 
but  apparently  all  of  this  honey  is  consumed  during  the  first 
24  to  48-hour  period  in  the  new  hive. 

A strong  colony  of  bees  when  transferred  to  full  sheets  of 
foundation  will,  in  less  than  48  hours,  draw  out  cells  far 
enough  so  that  the  queen  will  lay  eggs  in  them.  They  may 
also  store  small  amounts  of  honey  in  cells  surrounding  the 
brood,  but  this  honey  is  used  up  by  the  bees  before  the  eggs 
hatch.  This  provides  a period  of  at  least  four  days  for  the 
entire  consumption  of  the  honey.  Then  for  a period  of  three 
days,  theoretically,  the  young  larvae  are  not  fed  honey,  but 


FIG.  3.— ABANDONED  APIARIES  RESULTING  FROM  AMERICAN 
FOULBROOD 

Neglect  on  the  part  of  the  poor  beekeeper  leaves  such  deserted 
apiaries  as  a menace  to  better  beekeepers. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


11 


royal  jelly  so  that  their  food  is  not  subject  to  infection  dur- 
ing that  period  except  as  the  bacteria  taken  in  with  the  food 
may  remain  in  the  mouth  cavity  of  the  nurse  bee  and  become 
mixed  with  the  larvae  food.  However,  from  the  fact  that  the 
larvae  do  not  show  disease  symptoms  until  after  they  have 
reached  the  end  of  the  feeding  stage,  it  is  possible  that  infec- 
tion does  not  take  place  until  after  the  larvae  are  three  days 
old.  In  this  case  there  is  an  actual  period  of  seven  or  eight 
days  in  which  all  of  the  diseased  honey  carried  from  the  old 
brood  chamber  may  be  consumed.  During  this  period,  how- 
ever, the  bees  will  be  bringing  in  food  from  the  field  and  stor- 
ing it  in  other  parts  of  the  hive  as  well  as  keeping  a supply 
near  the  brood  nest.  If  infected  honey  can  be  reached  either 
in  the  store  room  or  through  exposed  combs  during  the  treat- 
ment of  other  colonies,  reinfection  may  occur.  The  bee- 
keeper then  must  carefully  carry  out  every  detail  of  the  treat- 
ment and  keep  infected  honey  or  combs  in  a tight  storeroom. 

No  beekeeper  who  is  careless  or  neglects  to  remove  all  in- 
fected honey  or  combs  and  keep  them  away  from  the  bees 
can  expect  to  eradicate  disease  from  his  apiary. 

Why  Extracting  Frames  Should  Not  Be  Saved 

Many  beekeepers  have  attempted  to  save  dry  brood-free  ex- 
tracting combs  thinking  that  unless  brood  had  been  reared  in 
them  they  were  free  from  disease.  Brood-free  extracting 
frames  that  are  absolutely  dry  and  free  of  small  drops  of  dried 
honey  do  not  carry  the  disease.  Careful  observations  show 
that  so-called  dry  combs  are  seldom  entirely  free  from  honey 
unless  the  colony  from  which  they  are  taken  has  been  brought 
near  to  the  point  of  starvation.3  If  there  is  a fair  amount  of 
stores  present  in  the  brood  chamber,  bees  clean  up  the  extract- 
ing combs  and  usually — but  not  always — put  the  honey  in  a 
few  cells.  In  many  cases  a very  small  amount  may  be  left  in  a 
cell  and  over  a long  period  of  time,  perhaps  five  or  six  months 
or  from  one  season  to  another,  these  tiny  drops  dry  out  and 
form  a very  small  scale  which  does  not  show  in  glancing  over 
the  combs.  These  small  scales  of  dried  honey  may  contain 
spores  of  the  disease  and  when  honey  is  again  stored  in 
these  cells,  the  scales  are  softened  and  the  spores  liberated. 

3Just  how  the  honey  in  the  extracting-  supers  becomes  infected  is 
not  clearly  understood.  During  a heavy  honey  flow  the  bees  deposit 
nectar  in  the  brood  chamber  and  later  carry  it  to  the  supers — perhaps 
this  is  the  explanation. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


Where  the  honey  from  these  cells  is  fed  to  the  bees,  a new 
infection  is  started  which  soon  spreads  to  other  parts  of  the 
brood  nest. 

In  an  'experiment  made  in  1919,  eight  sets  of  “brood 
free”  dry  extracting  combs  taken  from  colonies  diseased  with 
American  foulbrood  were  given  to  eight  two-pound  packages 
of  bees.  Sugar  syrup  was  fed  to  these  so  that  they  had  abund- 
ance of  stores  up  to  the  time  of  the  honey  flow. 

In  six  of  these,  disease  did  not  appear  at  all  during  the  sea- 
son. In  two  others  the  disease  appeared  with  the  first  set  of 
brood  and  continued  to  increase  until  the  colonies  were  treated 
in  July.  While  only  two  of  the  colonies  became  diseased;  the 
amount  of  disease  carried  was  25  per  cent.  Such  a high  per- 
centage makes  the  use  of  dry  extracting  combs  very  dangerous. 


FIG.  4.— AMERICAN  FOULBROOD  CAUSED  A HEAVY  LOSS  IN 
THIS  APIARY 


In  1918  an  average  of  187  pounds  of  honey  per  colony  was  produced 
here.  In  1919  nearly  every  colony  was  diseased  and  almost  cleaned  out 
due  to  the  introduction  of  the  disease  in  the  fall  of  1918. 

Five  sets  of  frames  with  foundation  which  had  been  worked 
on  but  slightly  or  not  at  all  were  also  taken  from  diseased  colonies 
of  the  year  before  and  given  to  package  bees.  Sugar  syrup 
was  fed  to  these  colonies  until  the  honey  flow  began.  No  dis- 
ease appeared  in  any  of  these  colonies. 

Does  Scorching  Insure.  Complete  Disinfection? 

Bees  do  not  leave  honey  scattered  about  on  the  walls  of  the 
hive  or  on  frames  and  will  immediately  gather  up  the  smallest 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


13 


drop  that  may  fall  from  a cell.  Therefore,  there  is  no  more 
danger  of  the  disease  being  carried  on  clean  hive  parts  than 
on  the  body  of  the  bee.  If  the  disease  is  spread  at  all  outside 
infected  honey  or  combs,  it  would  seem  that  the  bacteria 
would  adhere  to  the  body  of  the  bee  and  continue  as  a source 
of  infection  indefinitely,  for  we  know  that  the  spores  of  the 
bacteria  may  live  over  for  several  years.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  every  case  where  the  diseased  brood  and  infected  honey  is 
removed  the  disease  is  eliminated ; and  we  must  conclude  that 
the  bacteria  are  not  carried  over  on  the  body  of  the  bee.  The 
same  is  true  of  hive  bodies  and  frames — if  they  are  absolutely 
free  of  honey  the  bacteria  are  not  carried  over  on  them. 

In  a large  number  of  tests  the  hive  body,  bottom  board  and 
cover  were  taken  from  a diseased  colony  instead  of  from  a 
clean  hive.  Clean  frames  with  full  sheets  of  foundation  were 
used  and  the  bees  brushed  on  to  them.  The  percentage  of 
successful  treatment  was  as  large  in  every  case  as  with 
scorched  hive  parts.  The  danger  of  using  old  hive  bodies  lies 
in  carrying  them  over  until  the  next  season  and  not  thorough- 
ly cleaning  them  of  drops  of  infected  honey  which  may  have 
gotten  on  to  them  after  removal  from  the  bees. 

If  all  hive  parts  and  frames  are  thoroughly  scraped  and 
washed  with  hot  lye  water  so  that  all  particles  of  liquid  or 
crystalized  honey  are  removed  there  is  no  danger  of  reinfec- 
tion from  this  source. 

Where  a number  of  colonies  are  to  be  treated,  hive  bodies 
free  of  burr  combs  may  be  taken  from  treated  colonies  and 
used  to  shake  other  diseased  colonies  into  if  done  at  once. 

Never  use  a hive  body  from  a diseased  colony  on  another 
colony  having  drawn  combs  without  scraping  and  cleaning. 
Clean  not  only  the  inside  of  the  hive  but  the  outside  and  edges 
as  well.  Take  special  care  to  clean  up  all  honey  from  behind 
the  rabbets. 

Scorching  out  the  hive  body  is  no  safer  than  scraping  and 
washing  unless  every  inch  of  surface  both  inside  and  out  is 
treated.  Many  beekeepers  carefully  scorch  out  the  inside  of 
the  hive  but  overlook  honey  behind  the  rabbets  or  smeared 
on  the  outside  of  the  hive. 

Frames  Should  Be  Saved 

It  is  not  economy  to  destroy  the  frames  from  diseased 
colonies  except  where  one  or  two  colonies  out  of  a large  num- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


ber  are  affected  and  the  beekeeper  undertakes  to  stamp  out  the 
disease  by  destroying  hive,  bees  and  all.  It  is  also  unnecessary 
to  scorch  the  frames  but  they  must  be  scraped  and  cleaned  of 
wax  and  honey.  To  insure  the  removal  of  particles  of  crystal- 
ized  honey  place  the  frames  in  boiling  water  for  five  minutes 
and  dip  in  a second  tank  of  boiling  water.  If  the  frames  are 
loose  a few  extra  nails  will  make  them  rigid. 

W hy  Beekeepers  Fail  to  Eradicate  Foulbrood 

1.  Careless  manipulation  during  the  treatment. 

2.  Exposing  diseased  combs  or  honey  to  robbers. 

3.  Failure  to  remove  all  infected  honey  from  the  hive  body 
or  frames. 

4.  Failure  to  clean  up  the  extractor  or  floor  of  the  extracting 
house  and  storage  room. 

5.  Leaving  infected  honey  on  the  floor  and  then  setting  hive 
bodies  in  it  after  they  are  cleaned.  The  honey  crystallizes 
and  may  remain  on  the  hive  body  until  put  on  a colony  the 
following  year. 

•6.  Improper  attention  to  hospital  colonies  such  as  leaving 
them  exposed  and  treating  after  the  honey  flow  is  over.  All 
hospital  colonies  should  be  treated  before  the  end  of  the 
honey  flow. 

Brush  But  Do  Not  Shake 

Shaking  bees  from  combs  infected  with  foulbrood  is  a bad 
practice  and  is  always  likely  to  scatter  diseased  honey  where 
bees  from  healthy  colonies  may  gather  it.  It  is  possible  to 
brush  bees  from  combs  without  spilling  a drop  of  honey.  This 
requires  but  little  more  time  than  shaking.  When  bees  are  shaken 
out  of  a hive  there  is  always  some  danger  that  stray  bees 
carrying  a load  of  honey  may  go  into  a neighboring  hive. 

Bees  are  attracted  to  loose  honey  wherever  they  find  it  even 
during  a honey  flow,  and  a few  robber  bees  are  always  to  be 
found  in  the  yard  during  a heavy  flow. 

When  the  treatment  is  finished,  burn  the  brush.  A brush 
which  has  been  used  in  the  treatment  of  diseased  colonies 
should  not  be  used  with  healthy  colonies.  A whisk  broom  or  a 
bunch  of  stiff  grass — tied  so  that  pieces  of  grass  will  not  break 
off — is  better  to  use  than  a brush  having  bristles  that  dip  into 
the  cells.  If  a whisk  broom  is  used,  get  a soft  one  and  cut  out 
about  one-half  the  brush  part. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


15 


When  and  How  to  Treat 


Do  not  treat  bees  by 
brushing  unless  there  is  suffi- 
cient honey  coming  in  to 
keep  bees  from  robbing. 

Diseased  bees  may  be  treated 
in  the  late  fall  after  brood 
rearing  has  ceased  by  trans- 
ferring to  combs  filled  with 
uninfected  honey. 

Bees  may  be  successfully 
treated  during  any  period  of 
a honey  flow,  but  the  most 
desirable  time  is  shortly 
after  the  beginning  of  the 
main  honey  flow.  This 
period  for  Wisconsin  is  June 
15  to  June  20.  Diseased 
colonies  found  after  the 
honey  flow  is  over  should  be 
treated  in  late  October  after 
all  brood  rearing  has  ceased 
by  transferring  to  combs  of 
“disease-free”  honey.  If  the 
operator  is  careful  in  transferring  the  bees  at  that  time,  robbers 
will  get  very  little  honey,  and  this  will  quite  likely  be  put 
where  the  bees  will  use  it  during  the  winter. 

Plan  your  work  and  have  your  hive  bodies  ready  so  that 
every  diseased  colony  in  the  yard  can  be  treated  on  the  same 
or  the  following  day.  Melt  up  the  combs  and  clean  the  hives 
at  once. 

The  immediate  removal  of  diseased  combs  and  honey  is  the 
greatest  insurance  against  reinfection.  Do  not  store  the  hives 
over  until  next  spring  and  do  not  bring  a diseased  hive  or  comb 
into  the  extracting  house  or  storeroom  reserved  for  disease 
free  hives  and  supers. 

If  a colony  is  found  diseased  do  not  open  it  when  no  honey 
is  coming  in  from  the  field.  One  of  the  most  fruitful  sources 
of  infection  is  the  exposure  of  combs  containing  infected  honey 
or  exposing  diseased  colonies  to  robbers.  Colonies  of  bees 
vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of  robbing  they  do.  Some  colonies 


FIG.  5. — THE  BRUSHING  TREAT- 
MENT FOR  AMERICAN 
FOULBROOD. 


Hive  A is  the  foulbrood  colony.  B 
is  the  empty  hive  into  which  the 
brushed  combs  are  to  be  placed. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


are  continually  on  the  hunt  for  stores  while  others  remain 
peacefully  at  home.  Possibly  the  amount  of  stores  has  some 
effect  but  no  difference  has  been  observed  here  between 
colonies  having  abundant  stores  and  those  with  small  amounts. 
Diseased  colonies  that  are  weak  at  the  end  of  the  honey  flow 
should  be  destroyed  at  once.  As  soon  as  the  disease  is  found, 
close  the  hive,  carry  it  into  the  cellar  and  destroy  bees  and 
combs  immediately.  Also  see  that  none  of  the  bees  escape  after 
they  are  in  the  cellar,  for  bees  loaded  with  honey  fly  back  to 
the  old  stand.  When  they  do  not  find  the  old  home,  they  will 
go  to  the  nearest  hive  and  be  allowed  to  enter. 

Method  of  Treatment 

Regardless  of  the  plan  to  be  used,  the  principle  is  the  same 
in  every  case — removal  of  infected  honey  and  disease  bearing 
combs.  After  trying  several  methods  of  accomplishing  this 
and  observing  the  results,  the  following  method  seems  to  be 
the  simplest  and  safest  if  carefully  done. 

1.  Colonies  that  are  known  to  be  diseased  should  not  be 
given  extracting  combs  prior  to  the  treatment.  If  colonies 
have  been  supered  and  the  bees  have  built  comb  between  the 
frames,  lift  off  the  extracting  supers.  Then  starting  with  the 
one  next  to  the  brood  chamber,  draw  a knife  between  each 
frame  and  separate  it  from  the  next.  Do  not  do  this  until 
the  super  is  placed  back  on  the  hive.  The  operator  should 
carry  a can  of  steaming  hot  water  with  him  and  drop  the  knife 
into  the  water  while  moving  the  supers.  Be  careful  not  to 
allow  any  honey  to  drop  outside  the  hive.  This  operation 
should  be  done  the  day  before  treating  so  that  the  bees  will 
clean  up  the  edges  of  the  comb.  The  job  of  treating  will  then 
be  less  messy  and  the  chances  of  dropping  honey  outside  the 
hive  will  be  greatly  reduced. 

2.  Select  an  empty  hive  body  that  is  bee  tight  and  nail  a 
tight  bottom  to  it.  Then  place  a cover  on  it  that  can  be  moved 
freely  back  and  forth  when  diseased  combs  are  being  put 
into  it. 

3.  If  the  colony  is  only  of  medium  strength,  use  one  brood 
chamber  with  full  sheets  of  foundation.  With  unusually 
strong  colonies  use  two.  Place  an  empty  super  on  these  to 
brush  the  bees  into. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


17 


FIG.  6.— A SOURCE  OF  INFECTION  FOR  NEARBY  COLONIES 

After  the  bees  died  out  from  American  foulbrood  the  wax  moths 
entered  and  destroyed  the  combs  in  this  hive.  The  honey  which  leaked 
out  was  a source  of  ready  infection  for  healthy  colonies. 

4.  Place  the  hive  body  which  is  to  receive  the  diseased 
combs  to  the  left  and  rear  of  the  colony  to  be  treated,  and  put 
the  supers  of  foundation  and  empty  super  at  the  left  of  the 
diseased  colony. 

5.  Now  lift  the  diseased  hive  from  the  bottom  board  and 
place  on  a tight  fitting  board  at  the  right  of  the  old  stand. 
Then  place  a queen  excluding  board  on  the  bottom  board  still 
on  the  old  stand  and  set  the  clean  hives  and  super  on  top  of 
the  queen  excluder.  The  excluder  will  help  a great  deal  to 
keep  the  bees  from  absconding. 

6.  Slide  the  cover  of  the  diseased  colony  slightly  to  one 
side.  Then  lift  out  a frame  and  stand  it  on  top  of  one  of  the 
frames  below  the  empty  super  into  which  the  bees  are  to  be 
brushed.  The  bees  may  then  be  brushed  off,  no  honey  will  be 
thrown  onto  the  frames  and  less  honey  will  be  carried  into  the 
new  hive  than  when  the  bees  are  shaken  from  the  frames.  As 
soon  as  the  bees  are  brushed  from  the  comb,  place  it  in  the 
hive  body  at  the  left  and  cover. 

If  more  than  one  hive  body  was  on  the  diseased  colony  stack 
them  one  above  the  other  with  a bee  tight  board  below  and 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


the  cover  above.  When  the  frames  from  one  body  have  been 
removed,  shift  the  empty  body  to  the  top  of  the  hive  body 
now  holding  the  diseased  combs  and  use  it  to  hold  the  next 
set  of  frames. 

7.  As  soon  as  a colony  has  been  treated,  remove  all  infected 


FIG.  7.— DISEASE  MEANS  WASTE 

In  two  years  American  foulbrood  killed  120  colonies  which  had  been 
producing  annually  12,500  pounds  of  extracted  honey. 

combs  to  the  storeroom  before  treating  the  next  colony. 

8.  Do  not  wait  until  fall  or  winter  to  melt  up  the  wax  and 
clean  the  combs.  Do  it  at  once.  Otherwise  you  are  almost 
sure  to  have  your  yard  accidentally  reinfected  before  fall. 

Even  with  the  most  careful  treatment  reinfection  may  ap- 
pear in  a few  colonies  either  the  same  or  following  year. 
These  should  be  treated  or  destroyed  as  soon  as  a few  cells 
appear. 

The  Double-Shake  Treatment 

Some  beekeepers  recommend  the  “double-shake  method.” 
The  bees  are  first  shaken  onto  frames  with  starters.  After 
about  four  days  these  are  removed  and  the  bees  shaken  a sec- 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


19 


ond  time  onto  full  sheets  of  foundation.  This  practically  in- 
sures getting  rid  of  the  disease  if  no  outside  source  of  infection 
exists. 


FIG.  8.— DISEASE  WAS  FORCED  OUT 

This  apiarist  cured  185  colonies  of  the  disease  and  later  had  for  sale 
7,382  pounds  of  comb  honey  and  4,750  pounds  of  extracted  honey. 


Drawn  Combs  Used  With  Foundation 

Among  Wisconsin  beekeepers  there  is  a practice  which  is 
more  or  less  doubtful  as  to  success.  When  the  bees  are  run 
onto  full  sheets  of  foundation,  one  frame  at  the  side  of  the 
hive  is  left  out  and  an  old  drawn  comb  is  put  in  its  place. 
The  idea  is  that  the  bees  store  the  honey  they  have  brought 
with  them  in  this  comb  and  that  by  removing  it  the  next  or 
following  day  the  infected  honey  will  all  be  removed.  The 
very  fact  that  the  bees  store  honey  in  this  comb  makes  the 
practice  dangerous.  No  matter  how  careful  a beekeeper  may 
be,  he  cannot  open  the  hive  and  remove  the  comb  without  in- 
citing a number  of  bees  to  gorge  themselves  with  honey  from 
this  comb.  Thus  the  period  for  using  up  the  infected  honey 
carried  by  the  bees  at  the  time  of  shaking  has  been  reduced  24 
to  48  hours.  By  that  time  cells  will  be  sufficiently  built  out  on 
the  foundation  for  immediate  storage  of  the  honey  carried 
from  the  old  comb. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  333 


Disposal  of  Honey  and  Brood  From  Diseased  Colonies 

If  only  one,  two,  or  three  colonies  in  a yard  are  found  dis- 
eased it  is  better  to  destroy  the  brood  at  once  by  burning  in  a 
closed  space  of  some  kind.  If  a whole  yard  is  to  be  treated, 
so-called  “hospital  colonies”  may  be  made  by  stacking  the 
combs  from  four  or  five  colonies  on  top  of  a slightly  diseased 
colony  above  a queen  excluder  until  the  brood  is  hatched  out. 
Then  the  “hospital  colonies”  are  treated  and  the  brood  combs 
from  them  are  melted  down  or  destroyed. 

Hospital  colonies  kept  around  a yard  are  extremely  dan- 
gerous and  are  likely  to  be  a continual  source  of  reinfection 
no  matter  how  carefully  they  may  be  looked  after. 

Honey  from  such  colonies  should  be  extracted  and  bottled 
as  soon  as  taken  from  the  hive.  All  combs,  including  those 
with  brood  from  the  lower  hive  body  of  each  colony,  should  be 
melted  down  and  the  wax  extracted  at  once. 

Hospital  colonies  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  longer  than 
21  days  before  treatment.  The  bees  should  be  removed  from 
the  upper  stories  by  means  of  a bee  escape  and  the  hive  bodies 
removed  and  carried  into  the  storeroom  before  treating  the 
bottom  part. 

Hospital  colonies  should  be  set  at  some  distance  from  the 
main  yard  and  all  hive  bodies  must  be  bee  tight  except  for  the 
entrance. 

Hive  bodies  and  hive  parts  from  hospital  colonies  should  be 
thoroughly  scraped  and  cleaned  before  using  on  other  colonies 
because  during  the  period  of  treatment  they  are  likely  to  be 
somewhat  smeared  with  honey  and  it  is  almost  sure  to  carry 
spores  of  the  disease  from  these  colonies. 

The  Beekeeper  His  Own  Inspector 

Every  person  who  keeps  bees  should  frequently  look 
through  the  brood  nest  of  each  colony  to  see  that  conditions 
are  normal.  If  the  appearance  of  healthy  brood  is  well  known, 
any  abnormal  condition  will  be  easy  to  detect.  If  diseased 
or  dead  larvae  are  found,  report  the  condition  either  to  the 
local  or  state  inspector. 

A single  diseased  larva  in  the  spring  may  result  in  a badly 
diseased  colony  in  the  fall.  Such  a colony  may  become  weak- 
ened to  the  extent  that  it  is  robbed  out  and  the  disease  scat- 
tered to  many  colonies  in  the  yard. 


How  to  Control  American  Foulbrood 


21 


In  exceptional  cases,  very  strong  colonies  are  able  to  over- 
come a slight  infection  ; and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  colonies 
in  which  the  disease  continues  but  does  not  seem  to  make 
much  progress  during  any  one  season. 

Cases  of  this  kind  are  very  rare  but  the  danger  of  spread  is 
so  great  that  these  colonies  should  be  treated  the  same  as 
other  diseased  colonies.  Treat  your  own  bees  as  you  would 
wish  your  neighbor  to  treat  his  if  his  apiary  were  diseased 
and  yours  were  clean. 

How  to  Ship  Samples  of  Infected  Comb 

When  selecting  a sample  to  send  in  for  examination,  be 
sure  to  get  a piece  of  comb  three  or  four  inches  square.  Do 
not  pack  in  a tin  or  paper  box  but  use  wood.  A small  cigar 
box  is  good. 


Co-operate  with  your  neighbor  beekeeper  and  his 
neighbor  beyond  to  locate  the  disease  in  every  infected 
apiary.  Help  wipe  out  foulbrood  by  cleaning  up  your 
own  yard  if  it  is  diseased.  Organize  a local  ‘clean-up 
campaign  to  drive  the  disease  entirely  out  of  your 
county. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  op  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Pean  and  Director 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

G.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering' 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 
E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J'.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 
E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  'charge  of  Agr. 
Bacteriology 

C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathologv 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant 
Pathology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

R L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion service 


R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M. . Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
E.  J'.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  C.  Tpiomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Chemistry  and 
Bacteriology 

R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 

N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 

O.  H.  Gerpiardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 
A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

Oscar  Magistad,  Soils 

R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 

N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

Meta  Schroeder,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
J.  H.  VerHulst,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


COMBAT 

POTATO 
LEAFHOPPER 


WITH 


BORDEAUX 


AGRICULTU 

UNIVERSI 

MADISON 

Cooperating  With  the  United  States 


DIGEST 


The  potato  leafhopper  is  a deadly  menace  to  the  potato  crop  in  the 
Middle  West  and  East.  Page  3 

The  insepts  are  very  small  but  often  occur  in  vast  numbers  and  in 
feeding  rob  plants  of  much  of  their  sap.  Page  7 

Hopperburn  may  result  in  large  losses  to  potato  growers.  This  is  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  foliage  caused  by  the  leafhopper.  Page  7 

Early  Triumph  potatoes  are  much  more  severely  affected  with  hopper- 

burn  than  are  Rurals  and  other  Wisconsin  potatoes.  Page  14 

Hemp,  sugar  beets,  nursery  apple  trees,  soy  and  garden  beans  are 

injured  by  this  pest  and  hopperburn.  Page  18 

Bordeaux  mixture  will  control  the  leafhopper  and  hold  hopperburn 

down  to  a point  where  it  causes  no  appreciable  loss.  Pages  23-29 


Spraying  greatly  increases  potato  yields  if  it  is  done  early,  often,  and 
thoroughly.  Page  28 


Combat  Potato  Leafhopper  with 
Bordeaux 

J.  E.  Dudley,  jrv*  and  H.  F.  Wilson 

The  potato  leafhopper  is  one  of  the  most  important  enemies 
of  the  potato  in  the  United  States. 

Serious  outbreaks  have  occurred  periodically  in  certain  sections 
of  the  United  States  since  the  early  eighties,  but  not  until  18961 
was  the  leafhopper  known  as  a dangerous  menace  to  the  potato 
crop  in  the  Middle  West  and  East.  It  attacks  a large  number  of 
plants  and  occurs  commonly  on  the  apple,  the  plant  from  which 
it  was  first  described.2  The  leafhopper  sucks  the  juices  from  the 
plants  so  that  the  foliage  turns  yellow  and  the  leaves  curl  and 
wither.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  this  is  not  serious  but 
another  injury  accompanies  the  feeding  of  the  leafhopper  and 
causes  the  rapid  death  of  the  plant  if  nothing  checks  its  spread. 

A diseased  condition  is  produced  in  some  manner  in  the  plant 
which  causes  the  foliage  to  blacken  and  die.  The  cause  of  this 
is  not  well  understood,  but  the  indications  are  that  a toxin,  or 
possibly  a disease,  is  transmitted  through  the  feeding  punctures  of 
the  leafhopper  and  that  the  effect  spreads  rapidly  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant. 

The  disease  itself  has  not  been  studied,  but  many  observations 
upon  the  spread  of  the  injury  and  the  gross  effect  upon  the  plant 
have  been  made  to  learn  the  conditions  under  which  the  injury 
develops. 

*The  senior  author,  J.  E.  Dudley,  J'r.,  scientific  assistant  on  the  staff  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  is  in 
charge  of  a field  station  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  where  most  of  the  experi- 
ments described  in  this  bulletin  were  carried  out  in  co-operation  with  H.  P. 
Wilson  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Osborn,  Herbert.  A New  Pest  of  Potatoes.  Iowa  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  33.  1896. 

2Empoasca  mali.  This  species  has  been  called  the  apple  leafhopper  in 
many  publications  for  the  past  fifty  years.  In  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  true  apple  leafhopper  (Empoasca  unicolor ) the  name  of  its  principal  host, 
the  potato,  has  been  used  for  its  proper  comfhon  name. 


4 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


Seasonal  History  is  Important 

The  potato  leafhopper  (Fig.  1)  lives  over  winter  in  the 
adult  stage,  hidden  away  in  brush  heaps,  matted  weeds,  and 

other  protected  places.  In  late 
May  or  early  June  the  “hop- 
pers”emerge  from  their  winter 
quarters,  feed  for  a week  or  ten 
days  on  trees  and  shrubs,  then 
suddenly  migrate  to  potatoes 
and  beans  where  mating  and 
egg  laying  begin.  During  the 
first  week  after  emergence  in 
the  spring,  the  females  greatly 
outnumber  the  males  often  by 
ten  to  one. 

Eggs  — Tiny,  transparent, 
very  delicate  eggs,  about  %0  °f 
an  inch  in  length  are  inserted 
by  the  female  into  the  midrib 
and  stem  of  the  potato  leaf. 
(Fig.  1-A  and  Fig.  2-A).  The 
eggs  cannot  be  seen  from  the 
outside  and  careful  dissection 

FIG.  1.— ADULT  POTATO  , ^ . 

leafhopper  ot  the  midrib  is  necessary  to 

Enlarged  20  times.  disclose  them.  During  the  in- 

cubation period  the  eggs  change  from  transparent  white  to 
yellow.  Two  red  spots,  the  eye  of  the  developing  leafhopper, 
appear.  Under  artificial  conditions  eggs  hatch  in  from  9 to 
11  days  into  young  leafhoppers  called  nymphs.  Under  field 
conditions  the  incubation  period  appears  to  be  somewhat 
longer. 

Nymphs — Newly-hatched  nymphs  are  very  small,  wingless, 
and  nearly  white.  They  start  at  once  to  suck  juices  from  the 
plant  and  gradually  turn  yellow,  then  greenish  in  color.  They 
pass  through  five  distinct  stages  or  periods  of  growth,  and  shed 
the  skin  at  the  end  of  each  stage.  (Fig.  2,  B to  F).  When  quite 
young  the  nymphs  move  around  but  little  and  are  nearly  always 
found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  When  disturbed,  how- 
ever, they  move  quickly  to ’the  top  of  the  leaf  going  sidewise  like 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


5 


a crab.  During  the  fourth 
and  fifth  stages,  (Fig.  2,  E 
and  F)  they  are  more  active 
and  frequently  hop  from 
leaf  to  leaf.  At  this  time, 
they  are  quite  green  and  the 
partially  developed  wings 
are  easily  seen  at  the  middle 
of  each  side  of  the  body.  An 
average  of  17  days  is  requir 
ed  from  the  hatching  of  the 
egg  until  the  adult  stage  is 
reached. 

Adults — The  full  grown 
leafhopper  is  a small  pale- 
green  insect  about  of  an 
inch  long,  with  thin  irrides- 
cent  wings,  large  white  eyes 
and  a more  or  less  distinct 
H on  the  thorax.  (Fig.  2,  G) 

There  are  six  roundish  white 
blotches  at  the  top  of  this  H 
and  three  white,  wedge- 
shaped  blotches  below  it. 

These  marks  serve  to  iden- 
tify the  insect. 

Two  Generations  in  Wisconsin — Two  generations  of  the 
insect  are  produced  in  one  summer.  Most  of  the  over-wintered 
adults  have  died  off  by  the  middle  of  July  while  their  young 
develop  into  adults  and  form  one  complete  generation  appearing 
about  the  last  of  July.  A second  generation  is  then  developed. 
The  young  pass  through  the  same  stages  as  the  first  generation 
although  in  a slightly  shorter  time,  and  a new  brood  of  adults 
begins  to  appear  about  September  1.  This  brood  lives  over  win- 
ter. Many  careful  tests  have  shown  that  this  second  generation 
does  not  reproduce  until  the  following  summer. 

Although  the  appearance  of  adults  of  each  summer  genera- 
tion is  limited  to  two  distinct  periods  of  about  two  weeks  each, 


FIG.  1- A.— TINY  TRANSPARENT 
EGG  OF  LEAFHOPPER  LAID  IN 
STEM  OF  BEAN  PLANT 

Enlarged  6 times. 


6 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


FIG.  2.— THE  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 

A.  Egg  in  leaf  tissue;  B.  first  nymphal  stage;  C.  second  stage;  D.  third 
stage;  E.  fourth  stage;  F.  fifth  stage;  G.  adult  stage;  H.  outer 
(elytron)  and  inner  wing,  showing  venation. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


7 


the  females  have  a long  egg-laying  period  and  it  is  possible  to 
find  nymphs  in  all  stages  from  the  last  of  June  until  well  after 
frost  in  the  fall. 

How  the  Potato  Leafhoppers  Feed 

Adults  and  nymphs  of  the  potato  leafhopper,  like  other  leafhop- 
pers, suck  the  juices  or  sap  of  plants  through  their  delicate  beaks 
which  they  insert  through  the  epidermis  of  the  leaf.  In  con- 
trast to  certain  other  leafhoppers,  however,  the  potato  leafhop- 
per appears  to  feed  only  on  the  larger  veins  in  the  upper  half  of 
the  leaf  and  not  on  the  small  veinlets.  This  affects  the  supply  of 
sap  while  it  is  being  distributed  to  the  leaves  so  that  the  entire 
portion  of  the  leaf  supplied  by  the  vein  attacked  is  indirectly 
affected. 

Plants  Injured  by  Loss  of  Juices 

The  amount  of  plant  juices  lost  through  the  feeding  of  any 
of  the  different  kinds  of  leafhoppers  is  dependent  upon  the  size 
and  abundance  of  the  insects.  The  injury  which  follows  normally 
appears  either  as  a yellowing  or  curling  of  the  leaf  which  is 
sometimes  sufficient  to  kill  individual  leaves  but  seldom  the  entire 
plant. 

Potato  Leafhopper  Causes  Distinct  Injury 

Close  observations  on  injured  plants  have  shown  that  the  potato 
leafhopper  is  the  cause  of  a distinct  injury  which  follows  its 
feeding  on  potatoes  and  several  other  plants.  This  distinct  injury 
is  called  hopperburn 3 and  begins  with  a slight  yellowing,  usually 
at  the  tip  of  a leaf.  Later,  as  the  injury  progresses,  the  leaf  turns 
brown,  curls  upward  and  withers.  (Fig.  3.)  The  disease  spreads 
from  the  tip  or  margin  toward  the  midrib  of  the  leaf,  but  spreads 
more  slowly  towards  the  base.  The  basal  area  of  some  leaves 
may  remain  green  until  the  whole  plant  is  nearly  dead. 

During  periods  of  hot,  dry  weather,  hopperburn  spreads 
rapidly  and  whole  fields  of  early  potatoes  may  be  killed  in  a 
week.  (Fig.  4.)  Oin  the  other  hand,  during  cool,  moist 
weather,  or  where  protective  sprays  have  been  applied,  hopper- 

3Ball,  E.  D.  The  Potato  Leafhopper  and  the  Hopperburn  That  It  Causes. 
Wis.  State  Dept,  of  Agri.  Bui.  20,  pp.  78-89,  1918. 


8 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


FIG.  3. — HOPPERBURN  ON  POTATO  LEAF 

Photograph  from  upper  surface  showing  typical  brown,  upcurled  tip  and 
margin.  (Enlarged  4 times.) 

burn  is  checked  and  throughout  the  summer  shows  nothing- 
more  than  the  primary  symptoms. 

Although  hopperburn  is  communicated  to  the  plant  when 
the  leafhopper  feeds,  it  may  also  follow  when  the  female  inserts 
her  eggs  in  the  midrib  or  stem  of  the  leaf.  During  the  growing 
season  of  the  potato,  the  injury  always  appears  first  on  the  lower 
leaves  and  gradually  spreads  to  the  upper  ones.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  nymphs  tend  to  remain  in  the  vicinity 
where  they  hatched  until  the  adult  stage  is  reached.  New  growth 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


9 


is  at  first  comparatively  free  of  them  but  gradually  becomes 
affe'cted  through  feeding  of  the  ever  moving  adults. 

Leafhopper  Proved  to  be  Responsible  for  Hopperburn 

In  order  to  prove  conclusively  that  the  potato  leafhopper  is 
responsible  for  the  transmission  of  hopperburn  to  potato  and 
other  plants,  tests  were  made  in  the  insectary  with  individual 
screened  plants  in  pots  and  in  the  field  with  plants  covered  with 
large  cages. 

Tests  with  potatoes — In  two  tests  in  which  a single  adult 
“hopper”  was  placed  on  each  plant,  marked  symptoms  of  hopper- 
burn appeared  in  five  days  and  progressed  until  in  16  days  both 
plants  were  dead  while  two  plants  kept  free  of  “hoppers”  re- 
mained healthy  throughout  the  test. 


FIG.  4. — POTATO  PLANT  HALF  DEAD  FROM  HOPPERBURN 

During-  hot,  dry  weather  whole  fields  may  succumb  to  this  injury  in  a 

short  time. 


10 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


In  other  tests  where  a number  of  adults  were  placed  on  potato 
plants,  hopperburn  appeared  in  from  10  to  21  days. 

Tests  with  beans — Two 

leafhoppers  were  placed  on 
each  of  four  potted  bean 
vines.  In  less  than  two 
weeks  all  the  vines  became 
severely  injured  and  three 
died.  Vines  kept  free  of 
“hoppers”  remained  healthy 
throughout  the  test. 

Tests  with  apple — Two 
apple  seedlings  were  grow- 
ing in  a flower  pot.  Four 
nymphs  were  confined  in  a 
cage  on  one  seedling  which 
in  ten  days  became  badly  in- 
jured, while  the  other  seed- 
ling free  from  “hoppers”  re- 
mained healthy  throughout 
the  summer.  (Fig.  5.) 

FIG.  5. — TWO  APPLE  SEEDLINGS  v / 

show  effect  of  presence  In  another  test  several 

AND  ABSENCE  OF  LEAF- 

HOPPER.  small  nymphs  were  placed 

on  an  apple  seedling  for  some  time  but  no  injury  appeared. 
Some  weeks  later  two  adults  were  placed  on  the  same  plant 
and  following  hopperburn  injuries  it  died  in  two>  weeks. 
Adults  taken  from  the  field  and  placed  on  other  seedlings  pro- 
duced the  disease  in  from  10  to  21  days. 

Tests  with  dahlia — Twenty  newly-hatched  nymphs  were 
placed  on  a large,  healthy  dahlia  plant.  In  seven  days  the  plant 
was  diseased  and  in  20  days  was  dead.  A potted  plant  kept 
free  of  “hoppers”  did  not  show  injury  and  was  still  healthy 
at  the  end  of  20  days.  (Fig.  6.) 

Although  the  typical  injury  did  not  appear  in  every  test  where 
leafhoppers  were  placed  on  food  plants  in  pots — especially  where 
nymphs  were  used — yet  in  a large  majority  of  tests  well  developed 
symptoms  of  hopperburn  were  noted.  It  is  certain  then  that 
even  one  or  two  leafhoppers  are  able  to  cause  injury  to  a plant 
often  to  the  extent  of  killing  it.  Males  as  well  as  females  were 
found  to  cause  the  injury. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


11 


PIG.  6.— DAHLIA  PLANTS  READILY  AFFECTED  BY  HOPPERBURN 

The  two  plants  were  of  equal  size  when  the  test  started.  The  one  on  the 
left  contained  leafhoppers;  the  one  on  the  right  was  protected  from 
them  by  a large  cage. 

Field  Tests 

In  order  to  carry  out  similar  tests  under  field  conditions,  the 
following  experiment  was  conducted:  On  June  12,  1920,  when 
potatoes  were  breaking  through  the  ground,  large  cages  covered 
with  fine  mesh  wire  were  placed  over  two  hills  of  each  of  the 
following  varieties:  Early  Triumph,  Early  Ohio,  Irish  Cobbler, 
Green  Mountain  and  Rural  New  Yorker.  These  plants,  protected 
by  cages  (Fig.  7)  grew  faster  than  plants  in  the  rest  of  the  field 
until,  by  the  latter  part  of  July,  they  were  twice  the  size  of  un- 
protected plants.  By  the  middle  of  August,  however,  the  uncov- 
ered plants  overtook  the  caged  ones. 

On  July  12  fifteen  adult  leafhoppers  were  placed  in  one  of 
the  two  cages  over  each  variety.  In  each  cage  they  reproduced 
so  that  in  a short  time  there  was  an  abundance  of  nymphs. 


12 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


In  the  Triumph  cage  hopperburn  appeared  on  July  21,  or  nine 
days  after  the  “hoppers”  were  introduced.  The  disease  spread 
steadily  and  in  23  days  the  plants  were  dead.  The  plants  not  sub- 
jected to  leafhopper  attack  remained  entirely  healthy  up  to  Sep- 
tember 2 when  they  were  dug.  (Fig.  8.) 

In  the  Early  Ohio  cage,  hopperburn  developed  in  two  weeks 
after  the  “hoppers”  were  introduced,  the  plants  dying  late  in 
August.  Protected  plants  remained  healthy  all  season. 

Hopperburn  appeared  in  the  Irish  Cobbler  cage  two  weeks  after 
the  “hoppers”  were  introduced.  By  the  first  of  September  the 
plants  were  badly  diseased  and  nearly  dead,  while  the  protected 
plants  were  fairly  healthy. 

In  the  Green  Mountain  cage  hopperburn  did  not  appear  until 
July  29,  or  17  days  after  “hoppers”  began  to  attack  the  foliage. 
By  September  9 the  plants  were  affected  with  “burn”  to  a mod- 
erate degree.  Plants  protected  in  another  cage  had  no  hopper- 
burn. 


FIG.  7. — CAGES  USED  IN  HOPPERBURN  TESTS 


tn  these  tight  cages  some  plants  were  protected  from  hopper  attack  all 
season.  Hoppers  were  placed  in  other  cages  and  produced  hopper- 
burn. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


13 


FIG.  8. — ABSENCE  OF  HOPPER  MEANS  NO  HOPPERBURN 

Triumph  potatoes  caged  for  entire  season.  Leafhoppers  introduced  into 
one  cage  and  kept  out  of  other.  1920  experiment. 

Hopperburn  did  not  appear  on  Rural  New  Yorker  foliage 
until  August  3,  or  22  days  after  introducing  the  15  “hoppers” 
although  there  had  been  adults  and  numerous  nymphs  present 
right  along.  After  starting,  however,  the  disease  progressed 
rapidly,  and  the  plants  were  dead  the  first  of  September.  The  pro- 
tected plants  were  perfectly  healthy  at  this  time. 

Incidental  observations  regarding  hopperburn  were  valuable. 
Numerous  potato  flea  beetles  and  potato  aphides  were  found 
in  all  cages,  both  those  containing  leafhoppers  and  those  kept  free 
of  them.  As  the  disease  did  not  occur  in  cages  protected  from 


14 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


the  “hopper,”  it  is  quite  indicative  that  these  two  insects  do  not 
transmit  hopperburn. 

Relation  of  Leafhopper  to  Hopperburn  in  the  Field 

During  visits  to  potato  growing  sections  of  the  state,  it  was 
observed  that  without  exception,  when  the  injury  was  found 
the  potato  leafhopper  was  always  present,  and  no  injury  was 
present  when  leafhoppers  were  not  found.  The  extent  of  hop- 
perburn as  affecting  both  individual  plants  and  whole  fields,  was 
in  close  proportion  to  the  number  of  leafhoppers  present. 

Several  examples  may  be  given:  A field  of  Green  Mountain 

potatoes  on  new  land  surrounded  by  woods  was  visited  in 
August.  It  had  not  been  sprayed.  At  first  glance,  the  field  ap- 
peared uninfested  by  insects.  However,  upon  closer  examina- 
tion a leaf  here  and  there  was  found  which  showed  symptoms 
of  the  injury.  Without  exception,  a leafhopper  or  cast  skin 
could  be  found  on  or  near  every  leaf  thus  affected. 

In  a field  of  Early  Triumphs  a fourth  of  a mile  away,  the 
amount  of  hopperburn  was  found  to  be  much  greater  than  in  the 
field  of  Green  Mountains.  Likewise,  the  number  of  leafhoppers 
was  much  larger. 

In  a field  of  late  planted  Rural  New  Yorker  potatoes  neither 
leafhoppers  nor  hopperburn  injury  was  found.  An  adjacent 
field  of  early  potatoes  was  heavily  infested  and  badly  injured. 

Hopperburn  More  Severe  on  Certain  Varieties 

Different  varieties  of  potatoes  are  attacked  to  a different  de- 
.gree  by  the  potato  leafhopper,  and  different  varieties  are  affected 
to  a different  degree  by  hopperburn. 

The  extent  to  which  the  same  varieties  are  affected  has  ap- 
peared to  be  much  the  same  at  widely  separated  points  in  the  state. 
The  Early  Triumph  variety  is  always  affected  worst,  the  Rural 
New  Yorker  variety  always  least,  and,  moreover,  the  Rurals  are 
always  attacked  most  lightly  by  the  leafhopper.  The  relative 
number  of  leafhoppers  on  other  varieties  varies  considerably. 

It  is  believed  that  the  leafhopper  has  a preference  for  certain 
varieties  of  potatoes  of  tender  foliage  and  that  these  same  varieties 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


15 


may  be  more  susceptible  to  hopperburn  than  sturdier  varieties 
with  hardier  foliage. 

Some  Plants  Are  Resistant  to  Hopperburn 

Observations  for  two  seasons  indicate  that  certain  plants  of  a 
given  variety  have  greater  resistance  to  the  leafhopper  and  hop- 
perburn than  have  adjacent  plants  of  the  same  variety.  During 
the  summer  of  1919  in  an  unsprayed  plot  of  Rural  New  Yorker 
potatoes,  three  plants  although  continually  infested,  remained 
practically  uninjured,  while  the  surrounding  plants  without  excep- 
tion became  badly  affected.  The  same  was  true  to  a greater  or 
less  degree  with  other  varieties. 

In  order  to  test  the  resistance  to  hopperburn  of  individual 
plants  of  each  variety,  seed  potatoes  were  selected  in  1919  from 
Early  Ohio,  Irish  Cobbler,  Green  Mountain,  Rural  New  Yorker 
and  Late  Puritan  plants.  Two  kinds  of  tubers  were  chosen  at 
digging  time  from  12  vines  of  each  variety;  those  from  the  six 
largest  and  greenest  vines  most  free  from  hopperburn,  and  those 
from  six  vines  which  had  been  the  first  to  die  from  the  effects  of 
hopperburn.  The  size  of  the  tubers  was  not  regarded  in  this 
selection. 

In  1920  a plot  of  ground  was  set  aside  for  this  experiment 
and  one  row  planted  to  each  variety  of  the  selected  tubers.  The 
north  half  was  given  over  to  tubers  from  the  healthy  vines  of  th^ 
year  before;  the  south  half  was  planted  to  tubers  from  the  dis- 
eased vines  of  the  year  before. 

A row  of  Wisconsin  certified  Early  Triumph  seed  was  planted 
as  a check.  The  plot  was  sprayed  four  times  with  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, 4-4-50  combined  with  lead  arsenate,  2^2-50. 

An  area  of  six  feet  across  the  extreme  north  end  and  extreme 
south  end  was  reserved  as  a check  and  not  sprayed. 

Rurals — During  most  of  the  summer  the  foliage  of  plants 
from  seed  of  diseased  vines  was  heavier  and  more  abundant 
than  foliage  of  plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines.  By  the  last 
of  August  there  was  little  difference.  The  infestation  of  leaf- 
hopper adults  and  nymphs  was  slightly  greater  on  plants  from 
seed  of  diseased  vines  throughout  most  of  the  season.  These 
plants  became  affected  with  hopperburn  about  the  middle  of 
July.  It  spread  slowly  the  remainder  of  the  season  until  at 


16 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


digging  time  it  was  rather  severe.  Practically  no  “burn” 
occurred  on  the  plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines  until  the 
latter  part  of  August. 

The  amount  of  foliage  and  infestation  on  the  two  kinds  of 
check  plants  was  much  the  same  as  with  the  treated  plants.  The 
hopperburn,  however,  was  much  more  severe  on  the  plants  from 
seed  of  diseased  vines  than  on  the  others. 

Green  Mountains — Plants  from  seed  of  diseased  vines  had 
more  foliage  than  plants  from  seed  of  healthy  ones  until  the 
middle  of  August  when  conditions  were  reversed.  The  infesta- 
tion of  adults  and  nymphs  also  was  greater  on  plants  from  seed 
of  diseased  vines  until  mid-August  when  it  became  greater  on  the 
others.  Hopperburn  occurred  on  both  kinds  of  plants  and  in- 
creased gradually  during  the  season.  It  was  always  more  severe 
on  plants  from  seed  of  diseased  vines,  especially  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  August. 

The  amount  of  foliage  and  infestation  on  the  two  kinds  of 
check  plants  was  much  the  same  as  on  the  corresponding  treated 
ones.  Hopperburn,  however,  was  much  more  severe  on  plants 
from  seed  of  diseased  vines. 

Early  Ohios — As  with  the  two  former  varieties,  plants  from 
seed  of  diseased  vines  had  more  foliage  than  plants  from  seed  of 
healthy  ones  up  to  the  middle  of  August  when  they  were  practical- 
ly dead.  Plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines  although  severely 
affected  with  hopperburn  lived  two  weeks  longer.  The  infesta- 
tion of  adults  and  nymphs  was  a little  greater  on  plants  from 
seed  of  diseased  vines.  Hopperburn  occurred  on  both  kinds  of 
plants  in  nearly  equal  severity  up  to  August  10.  From  then  on 
it  was  far  worse  on  plants  from  seed  of  diseased  vines. 

Conditions  of  leafhopper  infestation  and  foliage  on  the  two 
kinds  of  check  plants  corresponded  closely  to  conditions  on  the 
treated  ones.  “Burn,”  however,  was  more  severe  on  check  plants 
from  seed  of  diseased  vines. 

Irish  Cobblers — The  foliage  of  plants  from  seed  of  healthy 
vines  was  more  abundant  from  the  first  than  the  foliage  of  plants 
from  seed  of  diseased  vines  and  lived  two  weeks  longer.  The  in- 
festation of  adults  and  nymphs  was  generally  much  heavier  on 
plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines  in  contrast  to  any  other 
variety.  Hopperburn,  although  prevalent  all  season  on  both  kinds 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


17 


of  plants,  was  much  more  severe  on  plants  from  seed  of  dis- 
eased vines. 

More  nymphs  occurred  generally  on  check  plants  from  seed  of 
diseased  vines,  and  hoppeidmrn  was  much  worse  on  them  than 
on  check  plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines. 

Late  Puritans — Foliage  of  plants  from  seed  of  healthy  vines 
was  much  more  abundant  throughout  the  season  than  that  of 
plants  from  seed  of  diseased  vines.  There  was  practically  no 
difference  in  infestation  of  leafhoppers  between  the  two  kinds 
of  plants.  No  hopperburn  occurred  on  plants  from  seed  of 
healthy  vines  until  mid-August  and  it  never  became  severe. 
On  the  other  plants  it  appeared  late  in  July  and  became  severe 
by  September. 

There  were  always  more  nymphs  on  check  plants  from  seed  of 
diseased  vines  than  on  the  others.  “Burn”  also  was  more  severe 
on  them  and  increased  rapidly  until  in  September  it  was  very 
heavy.  At  this  time  “burn”  was  moderate,  on  check  plants 
from  seed  of  healthy  vines. 

The  check  plants  of  all  varieties  showed  far  greater  difference 
in  individual  resistance  to  hopperburn  than  did  those  which  were 
sprayed.  The  check  plants  coming  from  seed  of  the  healthiest 
vines  the  year  before  held  up  much  better  under  leafhopper  attack 
and  hopperburn,  than  did  check  plants  from  seed  of  diseased 
vines  of  the  year  before. 

Although  this  experiment  shows  that  certain  plants  have  con- 
siderable more  resistance  to  hopperburn  than  others  of  the  same 
variety,  a warning  should  be  given.  It  is  just  as  important  to 
select  according  to  the  size  and  abundance  of  seed  as  to  consider 
the  health  of  the  vines.  It  was  found  at  digging  time  that  many 
of  the  plants  most  resistant  to  hopperburn  produced  many  small, 
inferior  tubers.  ! 

Conclusions — For  four  out  of  five  varieties,  leafhoppers  were 
found  in  greatest  numbers  on  the  plants  which  had  the  most 
abundant  foliage  during  all  or  part  of  the  summer.  On  the 
other  hand,  hopperburn  without  exception  was  worse  on  plants 
from  seed  of  diseased  vines  whether  or  not  they  had  the  most 
abundant  foliage.  This  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  checks. 
It  promises  to  be  of  interest  to  find  the  relation  of  plants  seem- 
ingly  preferred  by  the  leafhopper  and  plants  seemingly  resistant 
to  disease  to  their  relative  yield. 


18 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


Soil  Moisture  May  Affect  Hopperburn 

Hopperburn  appears  and  spreads  quite  rapidly  during  hot,  dry 
weather ; and  there  are  indications  that  the  soil  moisture  available 
for  potato  plants  exerts  much  influence  upon  the  amount  of 
“burn”  likely  to  occur.  With  an  equal  abundance  of  leaf  hoppers 
it  is  believed  that  hopperburn  would  be  far  less  serious  in  years 
when  there  is  ample  rainfall  during  the  growing  season  thar. 
in  dry  seasons. 

Potato  Leafhopper  Visits  Many  Plants 

A large  number  of  plants  are  visited  by  this  leafhopper.  In 
the  order  of  greatest  injury  from  hopperburn  they  are:  Potato, 
bean  (pole,  string,  navy,  lima),  hemp,  beet  (sugar,  table),  apple, 
raspberry,  red  clover,  Swiss  chard,  strawberry,  soybean,  cucum- 
ber, rhubarb,  lettuce  and  the  hop  tree.  Among  flowers  and  trees 
the  following  are  visited:  Dahlia,  hollyhock,  syringa,  weigelia, 
sumac,  dandelion,  elm,  box-elder,  burdock,  Indian  currant  and 
rose. 

Although  many  of  the  above  plants  are  used  merely  for 
feeding  or  even  resting,  reproduction  is  known  to  occur  on 
potato,  beans,  hemp,  apple,  dahlia,  and  box-elder.  Potato,  with- 
out a doubt,  is  the  favored  host  for  reproduction  with  bean  a 
close  second.  Hemp,  sugar  beet  and  apple  (nursery  stock  or 
water  sprouts)  are  more  heavily  infested  with  “hoppers”  when 
growing  near  patches  of  potatoes  or  beans.  Under  such  con- 
ditions reproduction  takes  place  readily  on  them. 

It  was  formerly  known  that  hopperburn  occurred  on  potato, 
beans,  apple,  raspberry,  box-elder  and  dahlia.  Additional  plants 
recently  found  affected  are  beans  (all  varieties  mentioned  above), 
sugar  beets,  hemp  and  hollyhock. 

Beans  Severely  Affected  by  Hopperburn 

String  and  pole  beans  are  as  readily  attacked  by  the  potato  leaf- 
hopper and  as  severely  affected  with  hopperburn  as  are  potatoes. 
Navy  and  lima  beans  are  rather  free  from  leafhopper  attack  and 
hopperburn.  String  beans  in  many  parts  of  the  state  have  been 
severely  injured  and  the  yield  greatly  reduced.  A large  field  of 
pole  beans  heavily  infested  by  the  insect  became  diseased  to  such 
an  extent  that  no  pickings  were  made.  Sprays  had  not  been 
applied. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


19 


Observations  were  made  on  a large  patch  of  beans  of  foui 
varieties:  Navy,  string,  bush  lima  and  pole.  Four  applications 
of  bordeaux  mixture  combined  with  lead  arsenate  were  made 


FIG.  9.— LEAF  OF  SUGAR  BEET  AFFECTED  WITH  HOPPERBURN 
Brown,  curled-up  tip  and  margin  of  smaller  leaf  shown  by  arrow. 

during  the  season.  Pole  beans  were  most  heavily  attacked  by  the 
“hopper”  and  suffered  most  from  “burn”  just  when  the  pods 
should  have  been  developing.  String  beans  suffered  next  to  the 
pole  variety  although  a good  crop  of  pods  developed.  Navy  beans 
were  not  affected  severely  by  hopperburn.  Bush  limas  were 
practically  uninjured.  Very  few  adults  or  nymphs  could  be 
found  on  them  at  any  time  and  no  “burn”  appeared  until  late  in 
the  season.  A nearby  field  of  soybeans  was  watched  for  compari- 
son with  the  other  varieties.  No  sprays  were  applied.  The 
infestation  of  adults  and  nymphs  was  light  at  the  beginning  of 
summer  and  increased  slowly  until  September.  It  never  be- 
came heavy.  Hopperburn  was  at  all  times  light. 


20 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


Sugar  Beets  May  Suffer 


The  potato  leafhopper  will  attack  sugar  beets  in  the  early  sum- 
mer and  reproduce  thereon  to  some  extent,  but  until  nearby  pota- 
toes are  dead  the  infestation  is  not  heavy  nor  is  hopperburn 
severe.  A large  field  of  sugar  beets  200  yards  distant  from  pota- 
toes was  found  early  in  July  to  be  lightly  infested  with  adults  and 
nymphs.  Typical  symptoms  of  hopperburn  were  evident.  (Fig. 
9.)  This  field  remained  lightly  infested  the  rest  of  the  summer 
and  “burn”  never  became  severe. 


Another  field  observed  joined  a large  patch  of  early  potatoes 
just  about  dead  from  hopperburn.  Leafhoppers  were  migrating 
in  vast  numbers  from  the  potatoes  to  the  beets.  The  first  few 
rows  of  beets  (next  the  potatoes)  were  very  heavily  infested  with 
leafhoppers  in  all  stages.  Farther  in,  their  numbers  became 
steadily  less  until  near  the  other  side  of  the  field  the  “hoppers” 
were  few  in  number  and  well  scattered.  Hopperburn  although 
not  severe  at  this  time  was  much  heavier  in  the  rows  adjoining 
the  potatoes  than  in  the  rows  on  the  other  side. 


Natural  Enemies  Not  Important  in  Control 

Three  enemies  known  to  attack  the  potato  leafhopper  were 
observed  during  the  season  1919.  One,  a tiny,  wasp-like  parasite, 
breeds  in  the  leafhopper  eggs.  This  parasite  is  general  in  south- 
ern Wisconsin,  but  does  not  occur  in  sufficient  numbers  to  mate- 
rially reduce  the  number  of  “hoppers.” 

Another  enemy,  a fungus  disease,  attacks  both  adults  and 
nymphs.  It  was  common  all  over  the  state  in  1919,  but  apparently 
killed  the  greatest  number  of  leafhoppers  in  the  northern  potato- 
growing sections.  Warm,  moist  weather  appears  to  be  necessary 
for  the  rapid  spread  of  the  fungus.  Leafhoppers  affected  with 
the  disease  soon  die  and  turn  from  green  to  yellowish  in  color. 
In  a short  time  a heavy  fungus  growth  appears  on  the  insect’s 
body.  (Fig.  10.)  The  fungus  grows  until  the  body  is  entirely  en- 
veloped in  it  and  a striking  blue  and  green  irridescence  appears, 
making  the  disease  easy  to  recognize. 

Spiders  frequently  catch  and  kill  young- nymphs  or  even  adult 
leafhoppers. 

Neither  the  parasite  nor  the  fungus  disease  was  found  during 
the  season  of  1920.  Although  the  parasite  was  no  doubt  present 


: M m i’^  il 1 1' i 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


21 


in  small  numbers,  no  specimens  were  secured.  The  fungus  disease 
was  looked  for  in  several  potato  sections  of  the  state  but  weather 
conditions  were  not  right  for  its  best  growth. 

Bordeaux  Controls  Leafhopper  and  Prevents  Hopperburn 

Proper  application  of  the  spray  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
feature  in  controlling  the  potato  leafhopper.  It  must  be  applied 


FIG.  10 — ADULT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER  KILLED  BY  A FUNGUS. 

During-  warm,  moist  weather  this  fungus  may  spread  rapidly  and  greatly 
reduce  the  number  of  hoppers.  (Enlarged  11  times.) 

to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  may  well  be  applied  also  to  the 
upper  surface.  The  spraying  must  be  thoroughly  done,  covering 
practically  all  of  the  foliage  on  the  under  side. 

A high  pressure  (150  pounds,  at  least)  should  be  maintained  in 
order  to  cover  the  leaves  with  a fine  mist,  rather  than  with  a 
coarse  spray.  Even  with  a hand-spraying  outfit  (Fig.  11)  at  least 
two  adjustable  angled  nozzles  on  adjustable  arms  or  booms  (Fig. 
12)  should  be  used.  Both  sides  of  every  row  of  plants  can  then 
be  sprayed.  If  larger  machines  are  employed,  more  rows  may  be 
sprayed  at  one  time.  A pressure  gauge  should  be  used  on  all 
pressure  sprayers  so  that  the  operator  may  know  whether  or  not 
the  pressure  is  up  to  150  pounds. 


22 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


Spray  Early — At  least  three  applications  should  be  made.4 
The  first  spray  should  be  applied  about  the  middle  of  June  or 
when  leaf  hoppers  appear  in  numbers.  It  is  often  possible  to  time 


RIG.  11. — AN  EFFECTIVE  TYPE  OF  WHEELBARROW  SPRAYER 


FOR  SMALL  PATCHES 

This  sprayer  has  a capacity  of  12  gallons.  A pressure  of  150  pounds  can 
be  kept  by  using  two  nozzles.  Spray  can  be  seen  coming  from  the 
nozzles  on  the  right. 

this  spraying  so  that  with  an  arsenical  added,  the  Colorado  potato 
beetle  also  may  be  controlled. 

The  second  spray  should  be  applied  in  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  from  the  first.  The  potato  plants  are  growing  rapidly  at 
this  time  and  offer  new  foliage  to  leafhopper  attack.  Frequent 
rains  may  be  expected  which  wash  off  much  of  the  material. 
Therefore,  the  second  application  should  be  timed  accordingly. 

The  third  spray  should  be  applied  about  two  weeks  after  the 
second,  depending  upon  the  following  conditions : If  new 

growth  is  infested  by  leafhoppers ; if  there  is  an  abundance  of 
leafhoppers  in  field ; if  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry.  (Hot,  dry 
weather  is  very  favorable  to  rapid  spread  of  the  injury.) 

A fourth  spray  might  well  be  given  to  advantage  from  the 
first  to  tenth  of  August  when  some  of  these  conditions  exist: 
A hot  dry  summer;  heavy,  new  growth  in  late  summer,  or  great 
abundance  of  leafhoppers  in  field. 

4It  is  preferred  not  to  give  exact  dates,  because  the  time  of  spraying  is 
bound  to  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  state. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


23 


Experiments  Show  Value  of  Sprays — Four  plots  were  used 
for  treatments  in  1919  and  three  in  1920.  It  was  thought  neces- 
sary to  have  the  plots  widely  separated  in  order  that  the  treat- 
ment for  one  should  not  in  arjy  way  affect  another,  especially  as 
swarms  of  leafhoppers  might  be  driven  by  the  spray  from  one 
plot  to  another.  In  having  the  plots  at  considerable  distances 


FIG.  12.— ADJUSTABLE  SPRAY  BOOM  USED  IN  LEAFHOPPER  EX- 
PERIMENTS. 

The  boom  may  be  adjusted  in  three  ways:  first,  by  bringing-  the  arms  to- 
gether or  spreading  them  apart  which  simply  loosens  or  tightens 
the  threads  of  the  coupling;  second,  by  turning  the  45"  couplings 
just  below  the  nozzles;  and  third  by  turning  the  angled  nozzles 
themselves. 

from  each  other,  it  was  not  possible  to  secure  uniform  growing 
conditions  as  to  slope,  fertilizer  or  character  of  soil.  The  best 
spray  used  therefore  will  be  indicated  principally  by  the  amount 
of  feeding  injury  and  disease  present  on  the  foliage  during  the 
summer  and  not  alone  by  relative  yields. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  1919 
Bordeaux  Mixture  Proves  Most  Practical 

One  plot  of  Rural  New  Yorker  and  Green  Mountain  potatoes 
was  sprayed  four  times  with  bordeaux  mixture,  using  4 pounds 
copper  sulphate  and  4 pounds  unslacked  lime  to  50  gallons  of 
water. 

There  was  a moderate  infestation  of  adults  and  nymphs  in 
this  plot  when  the  first  spray  was  applied  but  it  gradually  de- 
creased up  to  the  middle  of  July.  From  then  to  the  end  of  the 
summer,  there  was  a remarkable  scarcity  of  both  adults  and 
nymphs  especially  on  the  Rurals.  Newly-hatched  nymphs  ap- 
peared every  day  but  disappeared  in  a short  time.5  Untreated 

sFluke,  C.  L.,  Jr. — Does  Bordeaux  Mixture  Repel  the  Potato  Leafhop- 
per?  Jour.  Econ.  Ent.  Vol.  12,  No.  3,  pp.  256,  257 — 1919. 


24 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


rows  of  each  variety  between  the  treated  rows  were  heavily  in- 
fested with  the  adults  and  nymphs  throughout  the  summer. 

Hopperburn  appeared  on  tips  of  leaves  scattered  all  over  the 
plot  after  the  second  spraying  and  before  nymphs  began  to 
hatch.  On  the  Rurals  it  remained  without  spreading  to  any  extent 
up  to  harvest.  On  the  Green  Mountains  it  spread  very  slowly 
and  at  digging  time  had  not  become  serious — that  is,  probably  not 
more  than  one-fourth  of  any  plant  had  dead  leaves.  (Fig.  13.) 

On  the  untreated  rows  the  injury  spread  without  interruption 
from  the  tip  along  the  margin  and  to  mid-rib  and  finally  to  the 
entire  plant.  At  digging  time,  Rurals  showed  some  injury  on 
every  leaf ; Green  Mountains  were  badly  affected  and  many 
plants  were  dead. 


FIG.  13. — TYPICAL.  CONDITION  ON  SEPTEMBER  5 OF  PLOTS  TREAT- 
ED WITH  BORDEAUX  MIXTURE 

The  vines  were  heavy  and  in  fair  condition.  The  yield  was  greater  than 
that  from  untreated  plots.  1919  experiments. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


25 


Bordeaux  Mixture  and  Nicotine  Sulphate  Give 
Effective  Control 

Two  adjacent  plots  of  equal  size  were  planted  to  six  varieties 
of  potatoes — Early  Triumph,  Early  Ohio,  Irish  Cobbler,  Green 


FIG.  14.— PLOT  SPRAYED  WITH  BORDEAUX-NICOTINE  REMAINS 
HEALTHY  AND  YIELDS  HIGH 

On  August  23  the  six  varieties  of  potatoes  were  in  good  condition.  Com- 
pare with  Fig.  15.  1919  experiments. 

Mountain,  Late  Puritan  and  Rural  New  Yorker.  One  plot  was 
given  maximum  protection  by  being  sprayed  five  times  with 
bordeaux  mixture,  combined  with  nicotine  sulphate  for  the  last 
two  treatments  (6  fluid  ounces  to  50  gallons  of  bordeaux).  The 
other  plot  received  no  protection  from  the  leafhopper.  A very 
heavy  infestation  of  “hoppers”  and  frequent  rains  seemed  at  the 
time  to  require  the  five  sprayings  if  maximum  protection  was  to 
be  given.  It  is  probable  that  four  applications  would  have  been 
sufficient. 

When  the  first  spray  was  applied,  leafhopper  adults  and  nymphs 
were  present  in  the  treated  plot  in  from  moderate  to  large  num- 
bers. By  the  middle  of  July,  however,  a great  decrease  in  their 
numbers  was  noticed.  A week  later,  practically  no  nymphs  and 
only  an  occasional  adult  could  be  found  on  the  sprayed  plot.  This 
condition  continued  up  to  digging  time. 

The  unsprayed  plot  was  at  all  times  rather  heavily  infested 
with  both  adults  and  nymphs  and  the  numbers  increased  as  the 
season  advanced. 


2G 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


The  treated  plot  immediately  adjacent  to  a continual  source  of 
leaf  hoppers  remained  in  excellent  condition  throughout  the  sum- 
mer, the  Early  Triumphs  being  the  one  exception.0 

A slight  amount  of  hopperburn  appeared  on  the  tips  of  scat- 
tered leaves  in  the  plot  early  in  the  season,  but  did  not  spread 
noticeably  all  summer,  even  during  a period  of  hot,  dry  weather. 


FIG.  15. — PLOT  NOT  TREATED  IS  BADLY  DISEASED  ON  AUGUST  23 

This  plot  next  to  the  treated  plot  shown  in  Fig-.  14  is  seriously  affected 
with  hopperburn.  Early  varieties  in  the  center  are  dead.  1919  ex- 
periments. 


On  Late  Puritans  and  Rurals  there  was  almost  no  injury.  On 
the  remaining  varieties  it  was  generally  light.  (Fig.  14.) 

The  untreated  plot  showed  first  signs  of  the  injury  early.  In 
contrast  to  the  treated  plot  the  injury  spread  rapidly  until  mid- 
summer, at  which  time  the  early  varieties  were  practically  dead 
and  the  late  badly  affected.  (Figs.  15  and  16).  The  Rurals 
showed  less  injury  at  digging  time  than  any  other  variety. 

Thus  the  plot  given  maximum  protection  showed  a consider- 
able beneficial  contrast  to  the  plot  given  no  protection. 

Nicotine  Sulphate  Alone  Does  not  Control  Hopperburn 

» 

One  plot  of  Early  Ohio  and  Rural  New  Yorker  potatoes 
was  sprayed  four  times  with  nicotine  sulphate  and  fish  oil  soap 
(using  6 fluid  ounces  of  nicotine  and  2 pounds  of  soap  to  50 

6The  Early  Triumph  seed  came  from  vines  which  had  been  killed  the  pre- 
vious year  by  hopperburn.  Both  sprayed  and  unsprayed  vines  became  seri- 
msly  affected  with  hopperburn  early  in  the  season  and  were  dead  by  the 
middle  of  July. 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


27 


gallons  of  water.)  Four  applications  were  necessary  because  of 
the  enormous  number  of  leafhoppers  present  and  the  hot,  dry 
weather.  The  treatments  did  not  noticeably  reduce  the  infesta- 
tion of  adult  hoppers  so  that  the  eggs  were  laid  right  along  and 
young  nymphs  appeared  without  cessation.  Nymphs  present  when 
the  spray  was  applied  were  readily  killed,  but  no  repellent  effect 


FIG.  16. — TYPICAL  CONDITION  ON  SEPTEMBER  5 OF  UNTREATED 

PLOTS 

As  shown  by  rows  in  the  foreground,  untreated  plants  were  entirely 
dead  at  digging  time.  1919  experiments. 

was  observed.  (It  should  be  remembered  that  the  effect  of 
nicotine  sulphate  sprayed  on  plants  is  not  lasting.) 

Hopperburn  appeared  in  this  plot  a few  days  after  the  first 
spraying.  On  the  Early  Ohios,  it  spread  slowly  and  surely,  until 
the  first  week  in  August  when  all  plants  were  practically  dead. 
The  treated  rows  were  in  as  bad  condition  as  an  unsprayed 
row. 

The  Rural  New  Yorkers,  although  as  heavily  infested  all 
summer  as  the  other  potatoes,  remained  fairly  free  of  injury.  By 
the  middle  of  August,  however,  hopperburn  began  to  spread  to 
these  plants  and  in  a week  about  half  of  each  plant  was  dead. 
An  untreated  row  was  slightly  more  affected  than  the  others. 

Kerosene  Emulsion  Does  Not  Control  Hopperburn 

One  plot  of  Early  Ohio  and  Green  Mountain  potatoes  was 
sprayed  three  times  with  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  to  contain  10 
per  cent  kerosene. 

The  infestation  of  adults  was  not  noticeably  reduced.  Nymphs 
present  at  the  time  of  spraying  were  readily  killed,  but  great  num- 


28 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


bers  continued  to  hatch  and  did  not  appear  to  be  killed  by  any 
oil  remaining  on  the  leaves.  There  was  no  repellent  effect  ob- 
served upon  adults  or  nymphs.  The  Early  Ohios  were  practical- 
ly dead  by  the  last  week  in  July.  The  Green  Mountains  were 
badly  affected  by  the  middle  of  August.  The  untreated  rows  of 
each  variety  were  in  slightly  better  condition  than  the  treated 
rows. 


Yields 

The  yields  of  the  four  treated  plots  and  the  untreated  rows 
are  summarized  below.  The  exact  yields  per  acre  are  not  given 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  figuring  acre  yields  from  such 
small  plots.  The  proportionate  yields  of  treated  and  untreated 
rows,  clearly  shows  that  protective  sprays  have  a decided  value. 

Bordeaux  mixture  plot — The  treated  rows  of  Rurals  yielded 
twice  as  many  potatoes  as  the  untreated  rows;  the  Green  Moun- 
tains yielded  practically  twice  as  many  in  the  treated  rows.  The 
ground  in  this  plot  was  lacking  in  fertilizer. 

Bordeaux-nicotine  plot — The  two  rows  of  each  variety  in 
the  treated  plot  yielded  in  proportion  to  the  two  rows  in  the  un- 
treated plot  as  follows: 

Early  Triumph — no  marketable  potatoes  in  either  plot. 

Early  Ohio — twice  as  many  as  in  the  check. 

Irish  Cobbler — two  and  three-fourth  times  as  many  as  in  the 
check. 

Green  Mountain — two  and  one-third  times  as  many  as  in  the 
check. 

Late  Puritan — two  and  one-sixth  times  as  many  as  in  the  check. 

Rural  New  Yorker — one  and  fourth-fifth  times  as  many  as  in 
the  check. 

The  ground  comprising  these  two  adjacent  plots  had  been  well 
manured  and  was  in  good  condition. 

Nicotine  sulphate  plot — The  treated  rows  of  Early  Ohio 
potatoes  yielded  one  and  one-half  times  as  many  tubers  as  the  un- 
treated rows;  the  treated  rows  of  Rurals  twice  as  many  as  the 
untreated  rows.  This  plot  has  been  manured  from  time  to  time. 

Kerosene  emulsion  plot — The  treated  rows  yielded  one  and 
one-fourth  times  as  many  Early  Ohio  potatoes  as  the  untreated 
rows,  and  one  and  one-fourth  times  as  many  Green  Mountains  as 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


29 


the  untreated  rows.  The  ground  comprising  this  plot  had  not 
been  fertilized  for  some  time. 

Conclusions — The  treated  rows  gave  much  higher  yields, 
ranging  from  one-fourth  higher  with  Early  Ohios  and  Green 
Mountains  sprayed  with  kerosene  emulsion,  to  two  and  three- 
fourth  times  as  high  with  Irish  Cobblers  sprayed  with  bordeaux- 
nicotine. 

Rural  New  Yorkers  showed  less  difference  in  yield  from  three 
kinds  of  treatment  than  any  other  variety.  They  also  were 
infested  less  by  the  leafhopper  than  any  other  kind.  That  it 
paid  to  spray  them,  however,  is  clear. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  1920 
Bordeaux  Mixture  Again  Proves  Effective 

Bordeaux  mixture,  the  most  practical  spray  used  in  1919,  was 
given  a severe  trial  in  1920  on  a large  plot  of  ground  planted  to 
five  varieties  of  potatoes;  Early  Triumph,  Early  Ohio,  Irish  Cob- 
bler, Green  Mountain  and  Rural  New  Yorker.  We  wanted  to  see 
if  this  spray  would  again  have  the  effectiveness  in  controlling  the 
potato  leafhopper  and  thereby  largely  preventing  the  appearance 
and  spread  of  hopperburn.  The  plot  was  sprayed  four  times 
with  bordeaux  mixture.  A good  portion  of  each  variety  was  left 
unsprayed  as  a check. 

Early  Triumph7 — The  infestation  of  adults  and  nymphs  was 
generally  light  to  moderate,  at  no  time  being  heavy,  although 
relatively  more  “hoppers”  could  be  found  here  than  on  any  other 
variety.  On  the  check  a heavy  infestation  occurred  most  of  the 
summer.  Hopperburn  appeared  the  last  of  June,  but  due  to  the 
beneficial  effect  of  bordeaux  spread  slowly  although  steadily  until 
the  vines  died  the  last  of  August.  The  unsprayed  vines  were 
severely  affected  with  the  disease,  dying  early  in  August.  (Fig. 
17.) 

Early  Ohio  and  Irish  Cobbler— The  infestation  of  adults  and 
nymphs  on  these  two  varieties  was  generally  light  all  summer. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  season  it  was  often  difficult  to  find 
any  “hoppers”  at  all.  The  check  plants  were  moderately  in- 
fested early  in  July  and  became  very  heavily  infested  early  in 

7This  variety  was  certified  Wisconsin  seed  and  did  not  die  of  hopper- 
burn nearly  as  soon  as  did  the  plants  from  diseased  vines  used  in  1919. 


30 


WISCONSIN  BULLETIN  334 


FIG.  17.— TRIUMPHS  WITHSTAND  LEAFHOPPER  ATTACK  WHEN 
SPRAYED  WITH  BORDEAUX. 

Plants  at  right  of  stake  sprayed  four  times  and  still  green;  plants  at 
left  of  stake  not  sprayed  and  dead.  1920  experiments. 

August.  Hopperburn  appeared  on  both  varieties  early  in  the 
season  but  was  held  in  check  by  bordeaux  up  to  August.  From 
then  on  it  spread  gradually  and  by  September  was  rather 
heavy.  The  vines  were  unhealthy  looking  but  not  dead. 
“Burn”  on  the  check  plants  was  heavy  by  the  last  of  July  and 
all  vines  of  both  varieties  were  practically  dead  by  the  middle 
of  August. 

Green  Mountain  and  Rural  New  Yorker — Few  leaf  hoppers, 
either  adults  or  nymphs,  were  found  all  season  on  these  varieties. 
Many  were  found  on  the  check  plants,  the  infestation  becoming 
heavy  before  the  end  of  the  season.  Hopperburn  was  not  severe 
on  the  Green  Mountains  and  on  September  14  the  vines  were 
green  and  fairly  healthy.  Little  disease  occurred  on  the  Rurals, 
the  vines  remaining  green  and  healthy  up  to  the  middle  of  Sep- 


COMBAT  POTATO  LEAFHOPPER 


31 


tember.  The  beneficial  effect  of  bordeaux  was  very  noticeable. 
On  the  check  plants,  however,  hopperburn  was  severe  especially 
during  August.  The  Green  Mountain  vines  were  dead  early  in 
September.  The  Rurals  were  severely  affected  but  not  dead. 

It  was  repeatedly  observed  on  all  the  varieties  that  the  infesta- 
tion of  leafhoppers  decreased  greatly  after  an  application  of 
bordeaux  and  a week  or  two  elapsed  before  an  increase  was  again 
noticed. 

The  yield  of  the  five  varieties  was  small  on  account  of  a dry 
season  and  because  they  were  planted  on  a light,  sandy  slope, 
but  the  treated  portion  of  the  plot  yielded  more  tubers  for  each 
variety  than  did  the  untreated  portion. 

Recommendations  for  Control 

Spraying  appears  to  be  the  only  practical  method  of  controlling 
the  potato  leafhopper  and  thus  preventing  the  appearance  or 
spread  of  hopperburn. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50  is  effective  in  repelling  the  insect  and 
in  checking  the  “burn.”  This  spray  alone  should  suffice. 

Spray  the  underside  of  the  leaves  thoroughly.  Use  a good 
sprayer  in  first  class  condition  and  keep  the  pressure  up  to  at 
least  150  pounds.  Use  nozzles  throwing  a fine  mist.  Spray  each 
side  of  each  row.  Spray  three  times  at  least.  If  you  have  sprayed 
three  times,  spray  once  more  if  leafhoppers  or  hopperburn  persist. 

Great  difference  in  the  severity  of  hopperburn  on  different 
varieties  of  potatoes  has  been  shown  by  the  foregoing  experi- 
ments. Of  the  varieties  used,  Early  Triumphs  were  always 
affected  worst;  Rural  New  Yorkers  always  least.  Therefore, 
Triumph  potatoes  should  be  sprayed  early,  often,  and  with  great 
care  in  order  to  preserve  the  foliage  until  a crop  of  tubers  has 
had  time  to  develop.  Early  potatoes  generally  should  be  more 
closely  watched  than  late  ones.  Rurals  could  better  withstand 
a delay  in  spraying  or  lack  of  an  extra  spraying  than  any 
other  variety  used  in  these  experiments. 


Use  More  Bordeaux 


It  has  been  used  with  success  for  many  years  in  the 
control  of  early  and  late  blight  and  of  the  potato 
flea  beetle. 

It  is  an  effective  control  of  potato  leafhopper  and 
hopperburn. 

An  arsenical  added  to  bordeaux  mixture  makes  a spray 
which  will  assure  a crop  in  spite  of  nearly  all  in- 
sects and  diseases  which  attack  the  foliage. 

It  is  a universal  and  vital  treatment  for  potatoes,  and 
should  be  applied  often,  properly,  and  thoroughly. 


wiYEBsrr 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
! MADISON 


DIGEST 

The  most  successful  dairyman  is  a good  judge  of  dairy  cattle.  The 

development  of  higher  standards  relating  to  the  maintenance  of  dairy 
herds  and  the  production  of  most  satisfactory  milk  make  it  necessary 
to  improve  the  herd  if  dairying  is  to  be  profitable.  Quality  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  cows  are  more  important  than  a larger  number  of  cows. 
Judging  exercises  are  of  great  value  in  bringing  about  this  end. 

Pages  3-6 

Dairy  cows  of  improved  type  and  breeding  are  milk-making  ma- 
chines. They  have  size  and  capacity  for  feed  consumption,  constitu- 
tion and  good  health,  dairy  disposition  and  good  udders  which  are  pri- 
mary essentials.  They  furthermore  produce  most  valuable  offspring. 

Pages  7-8 

Feed  capacity  and  dairy  temperament  are  indicated  by  triple  wedge- 
like forms  of  the  body.  One  is  on  the  side,  one  on  the  back,  and  the 
other  in  the  shoulders.  The  base  of  these’ wedges  or  triangles  indicates 
feed  capacity,  the  sharp  point  dairy  temperament.  Pages  9-12 

Constitution  and  well-developed  milk  organs  are  highly  essential. 

No  cow  is  ever  perfect.  Udders  that  are  well  developed  and  nicely 
balanced,  together  with  general  style  and  quality,  add  much  to  the 
value  of  good  producing  cows.  Pages  13-19 

The  Babcock  tester  and  the  milk  scale  must  be  relied  upon  for  final 

judgment  on  a cow’s  ability  to  produce  milk  and  butter  fat.  Dairy- 
men could  gain  millions  of  dollars’  worth  of  feed  by  weighing  and 
testing  the  milk  of  individual  cows.  Page  20 

Pedigrees  are  of  value  in  judging  the  future  returns  and  excellence 
of  the  herd.  A pedigree  shows  the  ancestors  of  a given  animal  and  its 
value  lies  in  the  fundamental  law  that  “like  tends  to  produce  like”.  It 
pays  to  have  a herd  comprised  of  one  family  of  high-producing  cows. 

Pages  20-24 

Most  careful  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  dairy 
bull.  When  well  selected,  “the  sire  is  more  than  half  the  herd”. 
Proven,  “bred-for-production”  sires  should  be  preserved  and  used  to 
the  fullest  extent.  Pages  24-26 

The  best  judges  of  dairy  cattle  usually  own  or  manage  a good  dairy 
herd  and  make  a careful  study  of  judging.  A score  card  or  scale  of 
points,  the  object  of  which  is  to  train  the  mind  to  notice  the  various 
parts  of  the  animal,  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  acquiring  the 
art  of  judging.  One  should  never  miss  an  opportunity  to  take  part  in 
judging  exercises  and  contests.  Community  judging  contests  develop 
cattle  judges  and  improve  dairy  herds.  Pages  27-31 

Wisconsin  has  many  herds  of  most  excellent  dairy  cattle.  They 

have  been  developed  by  men  whose  judgment  has  been  based  on  pro- 
duction and  showyard  standards  of  excellence  embodied  in  production 
records,  representative  animals,  and  a scale  of  points  for  the  breed. 

Pages  32-44 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 

George  C.  Humphrey 

The  most  successful  dairymen  are  usually  good  judges  of  dairy 
cattle.  The  ability  to  select  profitable  from  unprofitable  cows  has 
always  been  a strong  factor  in  successful  dairying;  and  in  the 
future,  even  more  than  in  the  past,  it  will  be  highly  important 
for  all  dairymen  to  acquire  this  ability. 

The  permanency  of  dairy  farming  is  assured  by  the  growing 
appreciation  and  increased  consumption  of  milk  and  milk  prod- 
ucts. Incident  to  the  growth  of  the  dairy  industry,  there  are 
higher  standards  developing  relative  to  conditions  under  which 


A Good  Judge  of  Dairy  Cattle 

Makes  fewer  mistakes  in  buying  cattle. 

Gets  better  prices  for  his  surplus  stock. 

Selects  and  builds  up  a herd  of  cows  of  uniform  size, 
breed  and  quality. 

Receives  a higher  and  more  uniform  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat. 

Makes  greater  returns  over  and  above  the  cost  of  feed 
and  care. 

Uses  better  sires  and  secures  better  calves. 

Has  better  success  in  feeding  and  showing  cattle  at  fairs 
and  expositions. 

Has  greater  satisfaction  and  pleasure  in  owning  a dairy 
herd. 


milk  is  produced,  that  make  it  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  main- 
tain only  the  best  class  of  cows.  The  cost  of  feed  and  labor,  and 
the  maintenance  of  sanitary  and  clean  equipment  to  insure  healthy 
cows  and  a satisfactory  product,  naturally  make  the  demand  for 
bred-for-milk-and-butter-fat  cattle  insistent.  It  is  becoming  more 
and  more  important  to  know  all  the  facts  that  enable  one  to  select 
cows  which  will  qualify  for  large  and  profitable  production  of 
milk  and  butterfat. 


FIG.  1 — THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  BEEF  AND  DAIRY  TYPES 

The  beef  animal  has  straight  top  and  bottom  lines,  while  the  dairy  cow 

is  wedge  shaped. 


FIG.  2 — BEEF  ANIMALS  BLOCKY,  DAIRY  CATTLE  ANGULAR 
Fullness  of  the  fore  and  hind  quarters  are  typical  of  the  beef  animals. 
A comparatively  long  head,  sharp  brisket,  and  a pronounced  udder  de- 
velopment characterize  the  dairy  cow. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Educational  Value  of  Judging  Exercises 

Judging  exercises  and  judging  contests  are  of  distinct  educa- 
tional value  and  have  become  popular  in  the  programs  of  high 
schools,  secondary  schools,  community  and  breed  association 
meetings,  and  boys’  and  girls’  club  meetings.  Judging  dairy 
cattle  and  other  livestock  develops  observation  and  judgment  on 
the  part  of  those  who  participate.  Contests  or  judging  exercises 
can  be  recommended  for  every  school  and  community  of  the 
state.  Such  exercises  stimulate  a greater  interest  in  livestock  and 
promote  better  standards  for  rural  livestock  production.  Wis- 
consin is  destined  because  of  its  present  advanced  stage  in  dairy- 
ing, its  climate,  its  nearness  to  good  markets,  and  the  training  of 
its  people,  to  occupy  a highly  important  place  in  the  dairy  industry 
of  America.  It  is  more  important  to  improve  the  quality  and 
productiveness  of  the  cows  than  to  increase  the  number  and  the 
size  of  the  herds  to  meet  the  demands  for  dairy  cattle  and 
dairy  products.  Careful  judgment  in  the  selection,  breeding 
and  development  of  individual  herds  depends  on  having  a clear 
knowledge  of  the  dairy  cow  and  her  requirements. 

What  is  a Good  Dairy  Cow  ? 

Cows  which  are  heavy  producers  usually  have  certain  well- 
defined  characteristics  common  to  one  of  the  recognized  dairy 
breeds.  The  National  Dairy  Show  Association  of  this  country 
recognizes  Ayrshires,  Brown  Swiss,  Guernseys.  Holsteins  and  Jer- 
seys as  the  leading  dairy  breeds.  Purebred  animals  possess  100 
per  cent  of  the  blood  of  their  respective  breeds.  Grade  animals 
have  a predominance  of  the  blood  of  a given  breed,  but  less  than 
100  per  cent.  Grade  cows  are  usually  by  purebred  sires  and  out  of 
native  or  grade  cows.  The  breeding  or  ancestry  of  a cow  largely 
determines  her  characteristics,  the  use  she  makes  of  her  feed,  and 
the  characteristics  of  her  calves.  Dairy  breeding  insures  in  a 
great  measure  against  disappointment  when  one  buys  or  raises  a 
cow  for  milk  production.  Furthermore  it  gives  her  power  to  re- 
produce herself  in  offspring  that  tend  to  correspond  to  her  in 
type  and  excellence. 

Cows  which  possess  certain  so-called  “dairy  characteristics”  are, 
as  a rule,  more  economical  producers  of  milk  and  butter  fat  than 
those  which  lack  these  features.  A ready  acquaintance  with  these, 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


7 


as  well  as  with  the  line  of  breeding  represented,  will  aid  the  dairy- 
man in  selecting  profit-producing  cows.  Even  the  most  expert 
judges  of  dairy  cattle  are  unable,  of  course,  by  relying  solely 
upon  the  appearance  and  a study  of  family  records,  to  foretell  a 
cow’s  ability  to  produce  milk  and  butter  fat.  That,  in  the  end,  is 
told  only  by  the  use  of  the  milk  scale  and  the  Babcock  tester. 

The  dairy  cow  is  a most  wonderful  living  machine;  but  to  be 
worthy  of  the  name,  she  should  have  in  addition  to  dairy  breeding 


FIG.  3.— BEEF  AND  DAIRY  TOP  LINES 
Beef  animals  utilize  feed  for  developing-  a broad  and  thickly  fleshed  back. 
A triangular  shaped  back  indicates  dairy  type  and  milk  production. 


and  good  size  for  her  breed  certain  other  characteristics.  They 
are:  feed  capacity,  dairy  temperament,  good  constitution  and 
health,  and  well-developed  milk  organs — all  of  which  are  essential 
to  a large  and  profitable  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  A cow 
usually  fails  in  the  production  of  milk  and  in  commanding  the 


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Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


9 


highest  price,  to  the  extent  that  she  is  lacking  in  one  or  more  of 
these  essentials.  (Each  part  of  the  body  shown  in  Figure  4 bears 
some  relationship  to  one  or  more  of  them.) 

Because  symmetry  and  beauty  please  the  eye  and  may  have  a 
definite  value  in  determining  the  animal’s  ability  to  qualify  as  a 
profitable  cow,  she  should  also  have  style  and  quality  which  are 
indicated  by  a straight,  level  back  and  rump;  clean-cut  face  and 
neck ; straight,  well-placed  legs ; symmetrical  bones  of  good 
quality,  fine  hair,  and  mellow  hide.  Where  one  is  able  to  consider 
all  parts  of  the  body  and  judge  the  essential  features,  he  is  not 
likely  to  err  seriously  in  his  judgment. 

r== • *****  • -'1  FEED  CAPACITY 


FIG.  5— LOOK  FOR  THE  WEDGES 

The  body  should  be  wedge  shaped 
when  viewed  from  the  front  and  top 
of  the  withers,  wider  at  the  hip 
bones  and  at  the  floor  of  the  chest 
than  at  the  point  of  the  withers. 


A large  body,  more  espe- 
cially the  barrel,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  animal 
indicates  feed  capacity.  The 
body  of  the  dairy  cow  should 
be  wedge-shaped  as  viewed 
from  either  the  front,  the 
side,  or  the  top  of  the 
withers.  It  should  be  wider 
at  the  hip  points  and  pin 
bones  than  at  the  withers. 
The  floor  of  the  chest  be- 
tween the  fore  legs  should 
also  be  wider  than  the  top  of 
the  withers.  Again,  the  body 
should  be  deeper  from  the 
hip  points  to  the  bottom  of 
the  udder  than  it  is  at  the 
forequarters. 

These  characteristics  of 
the  body  have  led  to  the  term 
“triple  wedge-shape  confor- 
mation.” In  considering  the 
digestive  capacity  of  the 
cow,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  base  ends  of 
the  three  wedges  rather  than 
the  sharp  ends  indicate  feed 
capacity. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Large  digestive  capacity  is  indicated  by  ribs  well-sprung  and 
far  apart,  an  open  chine,  a back  wide  over  the  loins,  wide-apart 
hips,  and  full  and  deep  rear  flanks  resulting  in  a large  body  or 
so-called  barrel.  A wide  forehead,  a comparatively  long  face, 
broad  muzzle,  good-sized  mouth  and  strong,  sinewy  jaws,  are 
also  considered  indications  of  a large  digestive  capacity. 

The  tail  is  often  measured  in  judging  a cow;  and  to  meet  the 
standard  requirements  it  should  reach  to,  or  below,  the  hocks  and 
carry  a good  switch.  This  makes  it  most  useful  in  brushing  flies 
which  is  its  chief  purpose.  Except  that  the  loose  joints  of  the  tail 
indicate  an  open  condition  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  back — which  is 


FIG.  6.— GREAT  DIGESTIVE  CAPACITY  IS  ESSENTIAL. 

Fullness  of  flanks  and  good  depth  from  the  hips  to  the  lower  line  of 
the  rear  flank  and  of  the  udder,  together  with  well  sprung  ribs  far 
apart,  indicate  a large  digestive  capacity. 


desirable  in  the  dairy  cow,  and  may  indicate  length  of  body  and 
thus  greater  capacity  for  feed — it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  a 
long  tail  would  have  any  relation  to  milk  production. 

Dairy  Temperament 

The  dairy  temperament  or  dairy  disposition  of  a cow  indicates 
her  ability  to  convert  feed  into  milk  rather  than  into  flesh.  The 
dairy  breeds  have  acquired  this  ability  through  the  process  of  se- 
lection and  breeding  for  milk  and  butterfat  production.  It  varies 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


11 


in  strength  even  among  purebred  dairy  animals  and,  therefore, 
needs  to  be  carefully  considered  in  judging.  A cow  that  is  a 
large  and  economical  producer  of  milk  and  butterfat  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  have  a highly  developed  dairy  temperament. 

Cows  excelling  in  dairy  temperament  show  the  following  char- 
acteristics : 

Head  and  face — clean-cut  in  outline  and  indicative  of  fine 
quality.  Eyes — prominent,  bright  and  active.  Neck— fine, 
clean-cut,  neatly  joined  to  the  head,  not  too  full  at  the  throat 
and  comparatively  long  and  thin.  Shoulders — oblique,  com- 
paratively bare  of  flesh  and  sharp  at  the  withers.  Backbone, 
hips  and  pin  bones — prominent  and  sharp.  Ribs — more  or 


FIG.  7. — A SHALLOW  BODY  LACKS  CAPACITY 

A narrow  head,  small  eyes,  nostrils,  and  mouth,  usually  accompany  a 
narrow  shallow  body.  A cow  with  these  characteristics  proves  a disap- 
pointment as  a milk  producer. 


less  prominent  and  open.  Thighs — thin  and  incurving,  some- 
times termed  “cat  hams.”  Bones — in  all  parts  of  the  body  in- 
dicating quality  rather  than  coarseness. 

Sharp  Wedges  Indicate  Temperament 

The  lean,  muscular  tissue  on  the  outside  and  underneath  the 
shoulder  blades  and  along  the  back,  accounts  for  the  compara- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


tively  sharp  condition  of  the  withers.  The  wedge-shaped  con- 
formation shown  in  Figure  5 is  due  to  the  absence  of  flesh  about 
the  neck  and  the  forequarters.  It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that 
the  sharp  end  of  the  triple  wedge-shaped  conformation  is  indica- 
tive of  dairy  temperament. 

In  judging  quality  and  condition  of  the  muscular  tissue  of  the 
body,  an  allowance  for  the  size,  age  and  stage  of  lactation  of  the 
animal  should  be  made.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
bones  and  muscular  tissues  in  a large  cow  are  naturally  heavier 
than  in  a smaller  or  younger  animal.  Then,  too,  there  is  not  the 
natural  refinement  and  spareness  of  form  in  the  larger  breeds  that 
there  is  in  the  smaller  ones.  Marked  coarseness,  however,  in  any 
animal  is  undesirable.  It  is  usually  accompanied  by  a sluggish  dis- 
position that  prevents  the  dairy  cow  from  “performing  at  the  pail” 


FIG.  8. — A COW  WITH  MARKED  DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT 

Clean  cut  features  about  the  head  and  face,  the  fine  clean  neck,  the 
prominence  and  sharpness  of  the  back  bone,  hip  points  and  pin  bones, 
the  thin,  incurving  thighs  and  the  clean,  fine  shanks  in  this  cow  are  in- 
dications of  extreme  dairy  temperament. 

satisfactorily.  Young  heifers  with  their  first  calves  usually  carry 
more  flesh  than  cows  of  mature  form.  All  cows  that  are  properly 
fed  usually  show  more  flesh  development  toward  the  close  of  lacta- 
tion and  prior  to  freshening  than  they  do  when  four  or  five  months 
advanced  in  lactation.  This  should  be  considered  in  judging  dairy 
temperament. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


13 


Constitution  and  Vigor 

A cow,  to  be  most  profitable,  should  possess  strength,  vigor,  and 
health  to  insure  her  ability  to  work  a reasonable  number  of  years 
at  producing  milk  and  offspring.  The  period  of  usefulness  of  a 
cow  depends  upon  a rational  system  of  feeding  and  management, 
as  well  as  upon  constitutional  strength.  There  are  great  differences, 
however,  in  what  appears  to  be  the  natural  strength  and  endur- 
ance of  cows.  Johanna  Clothilde  4th,  the  foundation  of  the 
University  Johanna  family  of  cows,  lived  to  her  fifteenth  year. 
Her  twelve  years’  work  in  the  University  herd  resulted  in  five 
daughters  and  six  sons,  and  an  average  annual  production  of 
12,616.43  pounds  of  milk  and  452.20  pounds  of  butterfat.  This 
is  one  example  of  how  a good  dairy  cow  should  be  able  to  main- 
tain a profitable  production  until  ten  or  more  years  of  age.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  many  cows  do  not  prove  profitable  to 
this  age. 

Size  corresponding  to  that  for  the  breed,  without  coarseness, 
and  a healthy  circulation  of  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  com- 
bine to  indicate  health  and  vigor.  The  dairy  cow  yields  greatest 
profits  and  performs  her  work  easily  only  when  all  parts  of  the 
body  perform  their  respective  functions  and  there  is  capacity  for 
feed  consumption  and  milk  production.  When  the  cow  is  sick  or 
naturally  dull  and  sluggish,  all  the  glands  of  the  body  are  inactive. 
The  result  is  a dry,  harsh  condition  of  the  skin,  a staring  coat  and 
a low  production  of  milk.  The  blood  circulatory  system  includes 
the  heart,  lungs,  arteries  and  veins.  These  organs  respectively 
force,  purify,  and  carry  blood  to  and  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 

When  the  feed  which  the  cow  eats  is  digested  and  assimilated 
the  blood  carries  it  to  the  various  parts  of  her  system  including 
the  udder.  This  is  abundantly  supplied  with  blood  vessels,  and  in 
producing  a full  flow  of  milk  converts  approximately  30  per  cent 
of  the  digestible  nutrients  of  the  ration  into  milk.  Nearly  25 
per  cent  more  of  the  digestible  nutrients  of  the  ration  go  to  pro- 
duce the  energy  required  to  make  the  milk.  The  balance  of  45 
per  cent  of  the  nutrients  serve  for  body  maintenance.  A large 
amount  of  blood  circulating  to  the  udder  is  especially  essential 
to  milk  production.  This  is  judged  largely  by  the  veins  appear- 
ing on  the  under  side  of  the  body  and  quite  frequently  on  the 
outside  of  the  udder.  The  oily  condition  of  the  skin  and  the  oily 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


secretions  noted  in  the  ears  and  at  the  end  of  the  tail  indicate  a 
strong  circulation  of  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  the 
activity  of  all  healthy  glands  including  those  of  the  udder.  Large, 
open  nostrils,  providing  ample  air  passages  to  the  lungs  for  puri- 
fication of  the  blood,  are  important.  A narrow  head,  small  mouth, 
contracted  listless  eyes,  and  a narrow  body  with  a heart  girth  in- 
dicating lack  of  fullness  back  of  the  shoulders  and  especially  in 
the  region  of  the  fore  flanks,  indicate  poor  constitution  and  vigor. 

Well-Developed  Milk  Organs  Highly  Essential 

The  udder  is  the  milk  secreting  organ,  and  its  proper  develop- 
ment is  therefore  essential.  Associated  with  the  udder  are  the 


FIG.  9.— THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  MILK  WELLS 

Several  milk  wells  of  good  size  through  which  the  mammary  veins 
pass  into  the  body  are  the  best  indications  of  the  amount  of  blood  that 
circulates  through  the  udder  and  supplies  the  milk  secreting  glands. 

mammary  veins,  frequently  called  “milk  veins,”  on  the  under  side 
of  the  body  extending  forward  and  disappearing  through  openings 
termed  “milk  wells.”  These  veins  do  not  carry  milk  but  carry 
blood  away  from  the  udder.  They  are  usually  regarded  as  part 
of  the  milk  organs  and  are  considered  with  the  udder  in  judging 
its  quality,  form  and  capacity.  Blood  sometimes  becomes  gorged 
in  the  veins  as  a result  of  too  small  milk  wells,  a point  that  should 
be  considered  in  judging  the  size  of  the  veins.  Cows,  even  of 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


15 


large  digestive  capacity  and  of  pure  dairy  breeding,  fail  to  make 
satisfactory  production  when  they  have  poorly  developed  milk 
organs. 

The  udder  consists  of  two  large  glands,  more  or  less  distinctly 
divided  to  correspond  with  each  of  the  four  teats.  The  duct  of 
each  teat  enters  a small  cavity  termed  the  “milk  reservoir.”  The 
milk  reservoir  of  each  quarter  is  more  or  less  surrounded  by 
lobes  of  glands  held  closely  in  position  by  connecting  tissue.  These 
lobes  resemble  thick  bunches  of  grapes.  Each  lobe  has  several 
divisions  called  lobules  corresponding  to  the  grapes.  The  lobules 
are  made  of  small  divisions  called  “alveoli,”  which  correspond  to 
the  seeds  of  the  grapes.  These  alveoli  are  again  made  up  of  small 
cells  surrounded  by  fine  network  of  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  Milk 
is  secreted  by  these  cells ; and  it  is  believed  that  the  more  tortuous 


FIG.  10.— TYPES  OF  GOOD  UDDERS 

The  udders  should  be  large,  well  proportioned,  balanced,  extended  far 
forward,  and  high  up  between  the  thighs.  (See  udder  on  left.)  It  should 
be  of  fine  texture,  pliable,  and  the  skin  should  stretch  readily  when  the 
udder  has  been  milked  out.  (See  udder  on  right.) 

and  branching  the  milk  veins  are  and  the  more  extensions  they 
have  that  pass  into  numerous  wells,  the  greater  the  capacity  of 
the  cells  of  the  udder  will  be  for  secreting  milk. 

The  best  cows  of  all  breeds  have  comparatively  large  udders 
with  equally  developed  quarters  extending  well  forward  under- 
neath the  body  and  a good  distance  up  behind  and  between  the 
thighs.  Swinging  or  pendulous  udders  result  from  poor  attach- 
ment. Irregularity  in  the  development  of  the  quarters  is  a criti- 
cism to  be  offered  on  many  udders.  The  first  consideration,  how- 
ever, should  be  size  and  quality.  The  udder  tissues  should  be  fine 
and  plastic  rather  than  fatty  or  coarse  and  hard. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


FIG.  11.— PROMINENT  UDDER 
VEINS 

A good  circulation  of  blood 
through  the  udder  is  indicated  by 
the  prominent  udder  veins.  Teats  of 
good  size  and  well  placed  make 
hand  and  machine  milking  easier. 

the  milk  organs  andjndicative 
of  their  capacity  for  produc- 
ing milk.  If  this  is  true,  the 
escutcheon  should  be  given  as 
much  importance  as  the  milk 
veins.  Guenon  also  regarded 
the  peculiar  condition  of  spots 
of  hair  noted  at  the  back  side 
of  the  udder  of  some  cows  and 
termed  “thigh  ovals”  as  an 
important  point  to  consider 
in  connection  with  the  es- 
cutcheon. A lack  of  positive 
knowledge,  however,  of  the 
relation  of  these  features  to 
milk  production  prevents  giv- 
ing them  as  much  considera- 
tion as  is  given  to  the  milk 
veins.  A wide  escutcheon  that 
extends  high  at  the  rear  of  the 
quarters  is  considered  most 
desirable,  and  usually  is  al- 
lowed one  or  two  points  on 
the  score  card  for  dairy 
breeds. 


This  condition,  combined 
with  a good  system  of  veins 
underneath  the  body  and  well- 
developed  on  the  udder,  con- 
stitutes well-developed  milk 
organs. 

The  escutcheon,  which  is 
outlined  by  a mark  made  by 
the  difference  in  direction  in 
which  the  hair  runs  at  the  rear 
of  the  thighs  above  the  udder, 
was  thought  by  Guenon,  a 
French  student  of  the  dairy 
cow,  to  be  associated  with  the 
arteries  that  carry  blood  to  the 
udder.  The  escutcheon,  there- 
fore, would  be  associated  with 


FIG.  12. — ESCUTCHEON  AND 
OVALS 

The  escutcheon  is  outlined  by  a 
line  formed  by  the  difference  in  the 
direction  of  which  the  hair  lies 
above  the  udder.  The  thigh  ovals 
when  found  on  the  rear  of  each  hind 
quarter  of  the  udder  are  regarded 
as  indications  of  a large  milk  flow. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


17 


Style  and  Quality 

No  cow  ever  existed  that  could  be  called  perfect  in  all  respects 
when  scored  by  a critical  judge.  Every  animal  will  be  more  or 
less  deficient  in  regard  to  form  and  features  that  are  considered 
in  judging  her  value.  Style  relates  to  symmetry  of  form,  breed 
characteristics  and  the  general  beauty  and  attractiveness  of  the 
cow.  Good  proportions  and  a clean-cut  appearance  of  the  head, 
neck,  shoulders,  body,  hind  quarters,  udder  and  legs,  have  much 
to  do  in  giving  a cow  a well-balanced  and  neat  appearance.  A 
straight  top  line,  including  the  back  and  rump ; a neck  not  set  too 
low  and  free  from  throatiness  and  unnecessary  dewlap;  shoulders 
that  blend  nicely  with  the  body  and  are  free  from  coarseness  and 
undue  prominence  over  the  tops ; and  fineness  of  bones  at  the  hip 
points  and  about  the  tail  and  legs,  are  all  marks  of  good  style.  Too 
much  refinement  that  would  tend  to  make  the  animal  appear  deli- 
cate and  inefficient  would  naturally  detract  from  proper  style. 

Much  of  the  style  of  an  animal  depends  upon  good  quality  of 
the  texture  of  various  parts  of  the  body.  Fineness  and  smooth- 
ness of  the  bone  and  hair,  the  pliable  oily  texture  of  the  hide,  waxy 
appearance  of  the  horns  and  hoof,  brightness  and  alertness  of  the 
eye,  and  a general  healthy  appearance  of  the  animal  are  marks  of 
good  quality. 

Deficiencies  which  detract  from  style  and  quality  are : 

Head  lacking  width  and  dish  of  forehead;  too  long  or  too 
short,  narrow  at  the  muzzle  or  coarse  in  appearance. 

Horns  coarse  and  poorly  set  and  turned. 

Body  too  short  or  lacking  in  depth  with  ribs  too  close,  too 
short,  or  too  straight. 

Back  not  level. 

Hind  quarters  short,  narrow  or  drooping  with  thighs  too 
thickly  fleshed. 

Udder  unbalanced  and  irregular  in  shape,  with  teats  too 
short,  irregular  in  size,  or  improperly  placed. 

Legs  crooked,  out  of  proportion  in  size  of  bone,  apparently 
too  short  or  too  long,  and  set  too  close  or  too  far  apart. 

A tail  set  too  far  forward,  too  heavy  in  bone  and  too  short. 


FIG.  13.— TWO  TYPES  OF  HUMPS 

Rumps  that  droop  and  are  low  at  the  pin  bones  detract  from  the  beauty 
of  the  cow  and  are  usually  accompanied  by  udders  which  tilt  forward. 


FIG.  14— FOUR  TYPES  OF  UNDESIRABLE  uiaueRS 
Udders  deficient  in  the  fore  quarters,  irregular  in  the  size  of  quarters, 

pendulous  in  form  or  funnel  shaped  make  milking  hard  and  reduce  the 
capacity  for  milk  production. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


19 


FIG.  15. — INFERIOR  TOP  LINES 

A straight,  strong  back  is  most  desirable.  Backs  which  are  not 
straight  detract  from  the  general  appearance  of  the  cow  and  may  indi- 
cate weakness. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Judging  by  Records  of  Production 

The  cow  is  very  much  like  a race  horse  when  it  comes  to  judging 
her  ability  to  perform.  Both  must  be  judged  by  their  appearance 
together  with  their  record  of  performance.  The  milk  scale  and 
the  Babcock  tester,  assisted  by  judgment  of  the  eye,  are  the  best 
means  of  selection  in  building  up  a profitable  dairy  herd.  Per- 
sistently following  this  means  of  judging  will  lead  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a herd  which  is  both  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  capable 
of  a large  and  profitable  production  of  milk  and  butterfat.  Every 
dairyman  can  afford  to  weigh  the  milk  from  each  cow  at  each 
milking  and  have  a sample  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  tested  once  a 
month.  Results  accurate  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  may 
thus  be  secured. 

Scale  and  Tester  Would  Increase  Profits 

Feed  worth  millions  of  dollars  is  now  being  eaten  by  cows  that 
do  not  pay  their  cost  of  keep.  This  feed  would  be  saved  annually 
or  converted  into  milk,  and  the  value  of  dairy  products  of  the 
state  would  be  greatly  increased  if  the  scale  and  tester  means  of 
judging  were  employed  on  every  dairy  farm. 

The  Advanced  Registry  system,  maintained  by  dairy  cattle  asso- 
ciations, records  the  milk  and  butterfat  production  of  cows  offi- 
cially tested,  and  gives  valuable  aid  in  judging  many  purebred 
dairy  animals  on  the  basis  of  their  ability  to  perform.  Cow-testing 
associations,  directed  by  competent  supervisors,  are  highly  valu- 
able in  helping  dairymen  to  judge  the  production  ability  of  their 
cows. 

The  Pedigree  as  a Basis  For  Judging 

In  buying  dairy  cattle  and  in  selecting  animals  for  breeding  and 
milk  production,  the  Tuture  returns  and  excellence  of  the  herd 
should  be  considered.  Such  judgment  must  be  based  on  a knowl- 
edge of  the  family  or  group  of  ancestors  from  which  the  animals 
descend.  This  frequently  can  only  be  determined  by  pedigrees. 

A pedigree  is  a statement  showing  the  ancestors  of  a given  ani- 
mal for  two  or  more  generations.  Its  value  as  the  basis  for  judg- 
ing lies  in  the  fundamental  law  that  “like  tends  to  produce  like.” 
Where  the  ancestors  of  a given  animal  or  group  of  animals  are  uni- 
formly good,  it  is  reasonably  sure  that  individual  or  herd  ex- 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


21 


cellence  and  profitable  returns  for  the  future  will  be  sustained. 
Dairymen  will  find  it  profitable  to  take  pedigrees  into  considera- 
tion, together  with  individuality  and  performance  in  their  efforts 
to  make  herd  improvement. 

What  Constitutes  a Good  Pedigree 

Excellent  and  uniform  character  of  ancestors,  more  especially 
the  immediate  ones. 

The  absence  of  inferior  or  mediocre  ancestors. 

Lines  of  ancestry  showing  meritorious  families  of  the  breed. 

Accompanying  statements  of  facts  regarding  records  of  per- 
formance, show  yard  winnings,  direct  offspring  of  meritorious 
character,  and  bona  fide  sale  values. 

Pedigrees  Must  be  True 

The  writer  of  a pedigree  should  be  a responsible  person  and 
there  should  be  every  reason  to  believe  that  all  statements  are 
authentic.  The  so-called  ‘‘padded  pedigree,”  where  statements  in 
support  of  the  ancestors  of  a given  animal  are  far-fetched  and 
only  distantly  applicable,  is  of  little  value  to  a judge  and  fre- 
quently misleading  to  the  novice  and  to  the  public.  The  two 
pedigrees  presented  illustrate  the  contrast  between  a good  and 
a misleading  pedigree. 


22  Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Sip  Pietertje  Ormsby 
Mercedes  37th, 
110160. 

Born  Dec.  27,  1912. 
Sire  of:  18  A.  R.  O. 
daughters,  2 above  30 
lbs.,  10  others  above 
20  lbs. 

Ponderosa  Grace  Piet- 
ertje Mercedes  3 yrs. 
Butter  in  365  days, 
1072.60  lbs.,  milk  23,- 
360.00  lbs. 

Greatest  proven  son  of 
Sir  Pietertje  Ormsby 
Mercedes. 


Good  Pedigree 


Sir  Pietertje  Ormsby 
Mercedes,  44931. 

Sire  of:  71  A.  R.  O. 
daughters,  2 with 
over  40  lbs;  11  others 
above  30  lbs.,  35  oth- 
ers above  20  lbs. 

12  above  1000  lbs. 
butter,  semi-official 
in  365  days,  1 at 
4 yrs.  1389.45  lbs.,  1 
at  4 yrs.  1323.36  lbs., 
2 others  above 
1200.00  lbs. 


Spring  Brook  Bess 
Burke  2d,  131387. 
Butter  365  days, 
1290.94  lbs.  milk  24,- 
918.10  lbs.,  butter  7 
days  38.231  lbs.,  milk 
792.301  lbs. 

2 other  semi-official 
records  above  1000 
lbs.  of  butter  and  21,- 
000  lbs.  of  milk. 

Has  2 A.  R.  O.  daugh- 
ters, 1 with  40.74  lbs. 
in  7 days,  1043.65  lbs. 
in  365  days. 


Jack  Mercedes,  35077. 

6 A.  R.  O.  daughters, 
2 with  22  and  30.44 
lbs. 

2 A.  R.  O.  sons. 


Pietertje  Maid  Orms- 
by, 78051. 

Butter  7 days,  35.56 
lbs.,  milk  535.40  lbs., 
butter  30  days,  145.66 
lbs.,  butter  365  days, 
759.13  lbs.,  milk  16,- 
531.80  lbs. 

2 A.  R.  O.  daughters,  1 
with  30.75  in  7 days, 
1255.62  in  365  days,  3 
A.  R.  O.  sons. 


Sir  Johanna  Canary 
DeKol,  44034. 

18  A.  R.  O.  daughters, 
4 with  over  30  lbs.,  6 
others  with  over  20 
lbs.  2 A.  R.  O.  sons. 


Spring  Brook  Bess 
Burke,  98734. 

Butter  365  days 
1094.16  lbs.,  milk  25,- 
227.10  lbs.,  Butter  7 
days  34.81  lbs.,  milk 
630.80  lbs. 

Average  for  3 A.  R.  O. 
records  31.95  lbs.,  3 
yearly  records  839.75 
lbs. 


L 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 
Misleading  Pedigree 


23 


Colantha  Oakland  DeKol  Clyde 
H.  B.,  149311. 

Wt.  2000,  born  April  18,  1914. 

A son  of  Dutchland  Colantha 
Belle  Boy  and  a well-bred 
dam. 

His  sire  combines  in  the  clos- 
est degree  the  blood  of  the 
two  great  century  sires  Co- 
lantha Johanna  Lad  and  Hen- 
gerveld  DeKol,  who  together 
have  twenty-two  30-lb.  daugh- 
ters and  fifty-six  30  to  37-lb. 
grand-daughters. 


Dutchland  Colantha  Belle  Boy,  70156 
Rik  Friesland  Queen  4Y.  28.57 

Junette  Careme  Johanna 
2d  3V2Y.  28.20 

Abbekerk  Lady  Colantha  3Y.  27.24 

Little  Goldie  of  Wayside  3Y.  24.78 

Two  sons  with  A.  R.  O.  daughters. 

Records  of  his  dam  and  sire’s  dam: 


Ave. 

Butter  7 days  31.55 

Half-brother  to  sire  of  Lorna 
D.  Col.  35.00 

Lakeview  Dutch.  Artis  3 V2  Y.  34.66 
Col.  Gladi  Parana  31.72 

Princess  Aag.  Inka  3 y2  Y.  31.68 

Jenny  Linn  Col.  4Y.  30.95 

Butter  30  days  122.51 


Ida  Oakland  DeKol  Clyde,  202462. 
Her  sire  is  a half-brother  to  the 


dam  of: 

Urma  Burke  6 Y.  35.21 

Ave.  per  cent  Fat  5.26,  Milk  535.20 
Butter  7 days  5 Y.  30.24 

Ave.  per  cent  Fat  5.46,  Milk  443.10 
Butter  7 days  4 Y.  26.65 

Butter  7 days  3 Y.  24.90 

Grace  Segis  DeKol  Boon 

4i/2  Y.  31.65 

Urmagrace  - 31.26 

Butter  30  days  125.95 

and  to  the  sire  of  Lotta  Clyde 
7 D.  7 Y.  31.33 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


How  to  Judge  a Pedigree 

Considerable  knowledge  of  individual  animals  and  of  families 
representing  the  respective  breeds  is  necessary  to  enable  one  to 
judge  on  the  basis  of  pedigree.  The  pedigree  is  of  most  value 
only  in  the  hands  of  those  familiar  with  the  character  and  per- 
formance of  the  animals  named.  The  experiences  and  knowl- 
edge of  reliable  men  who  have  successfully  engaged  in  the  breed- 
ing and  building  of  herds  is  invaluable  and  should  always  be 
sought  by  younger  men,  who  are  naturally  beginners.  Concen- 
tration of  interest  on  a given  breed,  and  better  still  on  a few  of 
the  families  of  a breed,  is  highly  essential  to  success  in  acquiring 
a working  knowledge  of  pedigrees.  After  one  has  had  the  experi- 
ence of  breeding  several  generations  of  animals  in  a given  herd 
and  has  taken  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  study  and  make 
many  observations,  it  is  natural  to  rely  on  the  pedigree  as  one  of 
the  important  means  of  judging.  The  following  suggestions  are 
offered  on  how  to  acquire  a knowledge  of  pedigrees. 

Study  breed  literature  and  learn  to  know  the  leading  families 
and  the  most  prominent  individual  animals  of  a breed. 

Become  acquainted  with  men  most  prominent  in  promoting  the 
affairs  of  a breed. 

Visit  fellow  breeders,  sales,  and  shows. 

Keep  posted  on  facts  relative  to  your  herd  development  and 
improvement. 

In  herd  development,  have  animals  of  one  family  predominate 
with  which  you  are  thoroughly  familiar. 

JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  BULL 

The  dairy  bull,  like  the  dairy  cow,  offers  great  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  judgment.  A knowledge  and  consideration  of 
the  parts  shown  in  Figure  16  are  necessary  for  judging  and  valu- 
ing the  bull.  As  an  individual,  the  dairy  bull  should  be  typical  of 
his  breed  and  show  feed  capacity,  dairy  temperament,  constitution  ' 
and  vigor,  style  and  quality,  similar  to  the  cow.  A masculine 
character  indicated  by  greater  size  for  his  age,  greater  strength 
and  vigor,  a stronger  neck  well-crested  at  full  age,  heavier  and 
more  prominent  shoulders  and  forequarters,  together  with  only 
rudimentary  teats  and  a fairly  discernible  mammary  vein  system, 
are  the  characteristic  differences  one  would  note  in  judging  the 


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Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


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. He  should  have  good  size  for  his  age  and  show  feed  capacity,  dairy  temperament,  quality,  masculinity,  vigor  and  lines 
indicating  style.  His  prepotency  and  milk  production  ability  must  be  shown  in  his  daughters. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


individuality  of  a bull  and  that  of  a cow.  Particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  a well  balanced  conformation  and  blending  of 
parts,  a soft  pliable  hide  with  oily  secretions  and  a fine,  velvet- 
like coat  of  hair.  Considering  these  together  with  the  parts 
defined  in  Figure  16  gives  a basis  for  judging  a bull’s  indi- 
viduality. 

Judging  the  Bull  as  a Sire 

The  dairy  sire  is  of  more  importance  than  any  other  animal  in 
the  herd  because  of  the  great  influence  he  exerts  on  the  breeding 
and  building  of  the  herd.  There  is  much  truth  in  the  statement 
that  “The  sire  is  more  than  half  the  herd.”  He  is  the  more 
valuable  half,  however,  only  when  his  daughters  are  more  satis- 
factory individuals  and  producers  than  are  their  mothers.  It  is 
highly  desirable,  therefore,  to  judge  the  dairy  sire  on  the  broadest 
possible  basis.  Individuality  and  pedigrees  indicating  purity  and 
the  best  of  breeding  should  both  be  given  due  consideration  in 
judging.  In  the  final  analysis,  much  dependence  may  be  placed 
on  the  value  of  the  daughters  of  a bull — providing  he  has  reached 
the  age  and  maturity  to  have  a number  of  them — in  determining 
whether  or  not  he  is  worthy  of  further  use  as  a sire.  A proven 
sire  of  this  character  is  of  great  value. 

Use  Only  Bred-for-Production  Sire 

A full  consideration  of  a bull’s  pedigree  with  reference  to  his 
dam,  granddams  and  great-granddams,  and  the  milk  and  butter- 
fat  production  records  of  the  daughters  of  his  sire,  grandsires. 
and  great-grandsires  indicates  to  what  extent  a bull  is  “bred-for- 
production.”  A good  pedigree  is  one  of  the  essentials  for  judg- 
ing the  true  value  of  a bull.  Without  a good  pedigree  there  are 
chances  for  disappointment  sooner  or  later  in  the  development  of 
a herd,  due  to  the  inheritance  of  weak  characters  that  may  have 
been  common  to  animals  in  immediate  or  remote  generations  of 
ancestors. 

Preserve  the  Proven  Sires 

The  most  valuable  sires  are  good  individuals — at  least  they  are 
without  serious  objectionable  features.  They  have  good  pedi- 
grees indicating  “bred-for-production”  qualities;  and  their  pre- 
potency, or  ability  to  produce,  is  marked.  The  daughters  of  a 
valuable  sire  are  uniformly  desirable  and  better  than  their  dams — 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


27 


or  anyhow  as  good  as  an  excellent  lot  of  dams.  Sires  having 
these  qualities  should  be  continued  in  service  to  the  fullest  extent. 
Such  excellence,  prepotency  and  high  value  on  the  part  of  sires 
are  rare  qualities.  In  many  instances  they  are  not  appreciated  to 
the  extent  that  men  will  seek  to  locate  sires  having  these  traits. 
Many  sires  are  sold  to  the  butcher  before  there  is  opportunity 
to  judge  fully  their  merits.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed 
on  the  importance  of  exercising  the  best  and  most  complete  judg- 
ment possible  in  the  selection  of  bulls  for  herd  sires  and  on  pre- 
serving and  using  proven  sires  to  the  fullest  extent. 

JUDGING  AS  AN  ART 

Judging  dairy  cattle  in  its  relationship  to  the  dairy  industry 
may  be  regarded  as  a useful  art.  The  careful  dairyman  who  is 
anxious  to  build  up  the  best  possible  herd  will  find  it  advantageous 
to  study  carefully  the  art  of  judging  on  the  basis  of  individuality, 
pedigree  and  performance  of  cattle. 

Judging  in  the  Show  Ring 

Show  yard  judging  is  confined  to  making  awards  on  the  basis 
of  individuality  and  beauty  of  form  as  appreciated  by  the  eye  of 
the  expert  judge.  A keen  eye  is  needed  for  judging  and  is  a 
necessity  for  the  highest  degree  of  success  in  stock  breeding  for 
“Beauty  is  bought  by  judgment  of  the  eye.”  Show  yard  awards 
may  not  necessarily  mean  greatest  production  or  “bred-for-pro- 
duction”  individuals.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  show 
yard  animals  cannot  be  a combination  of  beauty,  choicest  breeding, 
and  high  productive  capacity.  Such  animals  are  becoming  more 
common,  and  with  such  a combination  of  excellence  are  the  most 
valuable  class  of  animals  to  be  found. 

Becoming  a Show  Yard  Judge 

One  may  learn  a great  deal  and  acquire  much  of  the  art  of 
judging  from  books  on  the  subject  and  by  observing  the  work  of 
expert  judges  whenever  there  is  opportunity  to  do  so.  The 
best  judges,  however,  are  men  who  have  owned  or  managed  a 
first-class  dairy  herd,  and  who  have  made  a careful  study  of  judg- 
ing in  the  show  ring.  Making  careful  and  accurate  observations 
and  exercising  judgment  based  on  the  best  standards  of  excellence 
will  assist  more  than  any  other  thing  in  becoming  an  expert  judge 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


of  livestock.  One  should  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity 
to  observe  the  work  of  expert  judges  and  to  take  part  in  scoring 
and  judging  exercises  whenever  possible. 

Score  Cards  or  Scale  of  Points 

The  dairy  score  card  or  scale  of  points  is  an  enumeration  of  all 
parts  of  the  cow,  arranged  in  given  order,  with  a statement  of  the 
requirements  and  the  number  of  points  for  a perfect  score  of 
each  part.  The  sum  of  the  points  for  all  parts  totals  100.  This 
arrangement  is  termed,  “A  scale  of  points”  and  is  the  standard  of 
excellence  by  which  the  individuality  of  the  cow  with  reference  to 
her  form  and  body  characteristics  may  be  judged.  Each  national 
dairy  cattle  breed  association  has  a scale  of  points  for  its  particu- 
lar breed.  It  is  well  for  the  judge  to  have  in  mind  the  scale  of 
points  for  the  breed  on  which  he  is  to  pass  judgment.  Otherwise 
he  may  err  seriously. 

On  account  of  the  great  amount  of  time  required  to  go  through 
the  mechanical  operation  of  scoring  a large  number  of  animals, 
the  score  card  system  of  judging  is  not  practiced  at  shows  or  in 
buying  cows.  The  primary  object  of  the  scale  of  points  is  to 
systematically  train  the  mind  to  give  consideration  and  weight  to 
each  part  of  the  animal  in  formulating  a judgment.  Score  cards 
are  furnished  by  dairy  cattle  breeders’  associations  and  it  is  a 
splendid  thing  for  local  associations  of  dairymen  and  students  of 
judging  to  have  scoring  exercises. 

How  to  Conduct  a Scoring  Exercise 

Every  community  interested  in  the  improvement  of  its  dairy 
cattle  might  have  one  or  more  meetings  each  year  for  score  card 
practice.  Here  are  a few  general  rules : Choose  someone  with  ex- 
perience and  a knowledge  of  correct  dairy  form  for  leader  and 
demonstrator ; have  a sufficient  number  of  animals  to  avoid  having 
too  many  men  crowd  about  and  score  the  same  one;  have  the 
animals  stand  at  ease  on  a level  floor  or  piece  of  ground  provided 
with  good  light ; inspect  the  cow  from  all  directions  at  a distance 
of  10  to  16  feet  noting  carefully  her  size,  form,  quality  and  alert- 
ness, (too  close  contact  with  the  animal  often  leads  a judge  to 
be  deceived)  ; note  each  point  in  the  order  it  is  named  on  the  score 
card ; use  the  hand  only  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  hair  and 
hide,  the  secretion  of  the  skin,  the  openness  of  the  back,  distance 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


29 


apart  of  the  ribs,  the  condition  of  the  mammary  veins  and  milk 
wells,  and  the  quality  of  the  udder. 

The  following  rules  may  be  employed  to  determine  the  extent 
to  which  any  part  should  be  cut.  The  cut  for  a deficiency  never 
exceeds  half  of  the  total  number  of  points  allowed  for  perfection 
and  is  never  less  than  .25  of  one  point.  For  example,  the  face  is 
allowed  5 points  for  perfection  and  however  deficient  is  never 
cut  more  than  2.5  nor  less  than  .25  if  deficient  in  the  least.  One’s 
judgment  must  decide  the  amount  of  discount  between  these 
limits.  No  cut  is  made  where  no  deficiency  is  noted.  When  all 
have  completed  their  scores  of  the  animal  or  group  of  animals, 
the  leader  or  expert  should  read  his  score  and  call  for  compari- 
sons and  discussions  on  all  parts  of  the  animal  to  help  everyone  to 
arrive  so  far  as  possible  at  a proper  judgment. 

The  scale  of  points  shown  on  page  31  rs  used  more  especially 
in  teaching  elementary  stock  judging  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. It  teaches  the  essential  features  and  the  structural  re- 
quirements of  the  dairy  cow.  It  applies  to  all  dairy  cows  without 
reference  to  breed,  and  will  be  valuable  to  anyone  interested  in  the 
selection  and  judging  of  cows,  who  is  not  familiar  with  what  con- 
stitutes dairy  types  and  the  essential  features  of  the  dairy  cow. 

A scale  of  points  for  each  dairy  breed  is  also  given  on  pages 
32  to  43.  These  have  been  prepared  by  the  respective  breeders’ 
associations  and  apply  only  to  the  breed  of  cattle  for  which  each 
was  prepared.  They  teach  the  size,  color  markings  and  peculi- 
arities of  form  of  the  different  breeds,  as  well  as  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  a dairy  cow.  The  breeder  and  judge  of  dairy  cattle 
should  thoroughly  familiarize  himself  with  the  scale  of  points  for 
the  particular  breed  or  breeds  he  may  have  occasion  to  judge. 

Judging  Exercises  and  Contests 

When  one  becomes  familiar  with  all  the  parts  and  essential 
features  of  the  dairy  cow,  competitive  judging  or  placing  a group 
of  animals  in  the  order  of  their  merit  will  be  interesting  and 
helpful  in  acquiring  the  art  of  judging.  Judging  exercises  and 
contests  can  be  held  at  meetings  of  cattle  breeders’  associations, 
county  and  state  fairs,  farmers’  clubs,  boys’  clubs  and  various 
other  meetings.  Officials  of  local  breed  associations  and  fairs, 
county  agricultural  representatives,  high  school  teachers  of  agri- 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


culture,  leaders  of  boys’  clubs  and  anyone  else  interested  in  the 
bettering  of  rural  conditions  can  organize  and  hold  judging 
contests. 

A judging  card  is  very  helpful  in  placing  competitive  classes  of 
animals.  The  card  for  dairy  cattle  shown  below  clearly  indicates 
how  one  who  has  become  familiar  with  essential  features  of  dairy 
animals  may  proceed  to  judge  and  place  four  animals  of  a given 
class  and  feel  that  no  important  considerations  have  been  over- 
looked. In  referring  to  the  card  and  making  use  of  it,  one  should 
familiarize  himself  with  all  of  the  parts  and  characteristics  of  an 
animal  that  define  feed  capacity,  dairy  temperament  and  the  other 
essential  features,  and  then  rate  the  class  to  be  judged  in  the 
order  that  his  judgment  dictates. 

The  judging  card  is  also  arranged  for  grading  the  student 
or  contestant  as  his  work  in  placing  a class  of  animals  is  checked 
with  that  of  an  expert  judging  committee.  Judging  exercises  and 
contests  will  do  much  to  arouse  an  interest  in  better  classes  of 
farm  animals.  Furthermore,  such  exercises  will  be  the  means  of 
stimulating  the  power  of  observation,  clear  thinking  and  good 
judgment. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


DAIRY  CATTLE  JUDGING  CARD 

Class Date 

Student No 

Student’s 

Placing  1st  2nd  3rd  4th  Grade  1,1 


Feed  capacity 

Dairy  temperament 

Constitution 

Back  and  rump 

Milk  organs 

Style  and  quality 

Total 

Average 


Final  placing  of  class. 


Total  II 
Student’s  final  grade  || 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


31 


SCALE  OP  POINTS  FOIt  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Student . . . . . Date 

Animal.  : . . . . Animal . . . 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE— "A  daCiry  cow  should  weigh  not  less  than 
800  pounds,  have  large  capacity  for  feed,  a dairy  temperament,  well  de- 
veloped milk  organs,  fine  quklity  and  perfect  health,  and  be  capable  of 
a large  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Per- 

fect 

Points  descent 

Points  deficient 

Student’s 

score 

Cor- 

rected 

Student’^ 

score 

Cor- 

rected 

INDICATION  OF  CAPACITY  FOR 
FEED— 25  POINTS 

Face,  broad  between  the  eyes  and 
long;  muzzle  clean  cut;  mouth 
large;  lips  strong;  lower  jaws  lean 
and  sinewy 

5 

10 

5 

5 

3 

4 
2 

4 

3 

3 

4 
1 
1 

3 

3 

15 

4 

2 

3 

5 

7 

7 

1 

Body,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from 
front,  side  and  top;  ribs,  long,  far 
apart  and  well  sprung;  breast  full 
and  wide;  flanks,  deep  and  full 

Back,  straight;  chine,  broad  and 

open;  loin  broad  and  roomy... 

Hip®  and  thurls,  wide  apart  and  high; 

INDICATION  OF  DAIRY  TEMPERA- 
MENT—25  POINTS 

Head,  clean  cut  and  fine  in  contour; 
eves,  prominent,  full  and  bright 

Neck,  thin,  long,  neatly  joined  to 
head  and  shoulders  and  free  from 
throatiness  and  dewlap 

Brisket,  lean  and  light 

Shoulders,  lean,  sloping,  nicely  laid 
up  to  body;  points  prominent; 
withers  sharp._  

Vxif.  ■ 

Back,  strong,  prominent  to  tail  head 
and  open  jointed 

Hips,  prominent,  sharp  and  level 
with  back._ 

Thighs,  thin  and  incurving 

Tail,  fine  and  tapering 

Legs,  straight;  shank  fine 

INDICATION  OF  WELL  DEVELOP- 
ED MILK  ORGANS— 25  POINTS 

Rump,  long,  wide  and  level;  pelvis 
roomy  .- 

Thighs,  wide  apart;  twist,  high  and 
open.. 

Udder,  large,  pliable,  extending  well 
forward  and  high  up  behind;  quar- 
ters, full,  symmetrical,  evenly 
joined  and  well  held  up  to  body.... 

Teats,  plumb,  good  size,  symmetrical 
and  well  placed 

INDICATIONS  OF  STRONG  CIR- 
CULATORY SYSTEM, 
HEALTH,  VIGOR  AND 
MILK  FLOW— 25  POINTS 

Eyes,  bright  and  placid 

Nostiils,  large  and  open...  

Chest,  roomy 

Skin,  pliable;  hair,  fine  and  straight; 
secretions,  abundant  in  ear,  on 
body  and  at  end  of  tail  

Veins,  prominent  on  face  and  udder; 
mammary  veins,  large,  long,  crook- 
ed and  branching;  milk  wells  large 
and  numerous 

Escutcheon,  wide  and  extending  high 

up 

Total 

100 

FIG.  17.— THE  NOTED  SCOTCH  BREED 

The  native  home  of  the  Ayrshire  is  southwestern  Scotland.  Cattle  of 
this  breed  were  imported  into  Canada  early  in  the  19th  century  and  into 
the  United  States  in  1822.  The  American  Ayrshire  Breeders’  Association, 
organized  in  1875,  provides  for  the  registration  of  Ayrshire  cattle  bred 
in  the  United  States.  C.  L.  Burlingham,  Brandon,  Vermont,  is  the  pres- 
ent secretary. 

The  Ayrshire  cow,  Garclaugh  May  Mischief  27944,  holds  the  world’s 
milk  record  for  this  breed  with  a production  of  25,329  pounds  of  milk 
testing  3.53  per  cent,  and  894.91  pounds  of  butter  fat.  Lily  of  Willow- 
moor  has  the  highest  butter  fat  record  for  the  breed,  with  a production 
of  22,596  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.22  per  cent,  and  955.56  pounds  of  but- 
ter fat. 

Laurie  Lorain  22202  holds  the  best  Wisconsin  record  for  the  breed  with 
a production  of  16,753  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.28  per  cent,  and  717.6 
pounds  of  butter  fat. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


33 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  AYRSHIRE  COW 


Head  10 

Forehead — Broad  and  clearly  defined 1 

Horn — Wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward 1 

Face — Of  medium  length,  slightly  dished;  clean  cut,  showing 

veins  2 

Muzzle — Broad  and  strong  without  coarseness,  nostrils  large...  1 

Jaws — Wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes — Full  and  bright  with  placid  expression 3 

Ears — Of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert 1 

Neck. — Fine  throughout,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head  and  shoul- 
ders, of  good  length,  moderately  thin,  nearly  free  from  loose  skin, 
elegant  in  bearing 3 

Fore  Quarters  10 

Shoulders — Light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to  point 

but  sharp  at  withers,  smoothly  blending  into  body 2 

Chest — Low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs 6 

Brisket — Light  1 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  straight  and  short,  well  apart,  shanks  fine 
and  smooth,  joints  firm,  feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and 


deep  1 


Body  13 

Back — Short  and  straight,  chine  lean,  sharp  and  open  jointed...  4 

Loin — Broad,  strong  and  level 2 

Ribs — Long,  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung 3 

Abdomen — Capacious,  deep,  firmly  held  up  with  strong  muscular 

development 3 

Flank — Thin  and  arching 1 

Hind  Quarters  11 

Rump — Wide,  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin  bones,  a reasonable 

pelvic  arch  allowed 3 

Hooks — Wide  apart  and  not  projecting  above  back  nor  unduly 

overlain  with  fat 2 

Pin  Bones — High,  wide  apart 1 

Thighs — Thin,  long  and  wide  apart 2 

Tail — Fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back 1 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  strong,  short,  straight,  when  viewed  from 
behind  and  set  well  apart;  shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm, 
feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep 2 


Udder. — Long,  wide,  deep  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy;  firmly  at- 
tached to  the  body,  extending  well  up  behind  and  far  forward;  quar- 
ters even;  sole  nearly  level  and  not  indented  between  teats,  udder 


veins  well  developed  and  plainly  visible 22 

Teats. — Evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side  to  side  equal  to  half 
the  breadth  of  udder,  from  back  to  front  equal  to  one-third  the 
length;  length  2V2  to  3 y2  inches,  thickness  in  keeping  with  length, 
hanging  perpendicular  and  not  tapering 8 

Mammary  Veins. — Large,  long,  tortuous,  branching  and  entering  large 

orifices  5 

Escutcheon. — Distinctly  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and  extending 
well  upward  2 

Color. — Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  mahogany  and 
white,  or  white,  each  color  distinctly  defined.  (Brindle  markings 
allowed  but  not  desired.) 2 


Covering  

Skin — Medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Hair — Soft  and  fine 2 

Secretions — Oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 1 


Style. — Active,  vigorous,  showing  strong  character,  temperament  in- 
clined to  nervousness  but  docile 4 


Weight. — At  maturity  not  less  than  1,000  pounds 


4 


Total 


100 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  AYRSHIRE  BULL 

Head  1C 

Forehead — Broad  and  clearly  defined 2 

Horn — Strong  at  base,  set  wide  apart  inclining  upward 1 

Face — Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  showing  facial  veins 2 

Muzzle — Broad  and  strong  without  coarseness 1 

Nostrils — Large  and  open 2 

Jaws — "Wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes — Moderately  large,  full  and  bright 3 

Ears — Of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert 1 

Expression- — Full  of  vigor,  resolute  and  masculine 3 

Neck. — Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong  in  the 
muscles  on  top,  inclined  to  flatness  on  sides,  enlarging  symmet- 
rically toward  the  shoulders,  throat  clean  and  free  from  loose  skin  10 

Fore  Quarters  15 

Shoulders — Strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body  with  good  dis- 
tance through  from  point  to  point  and  fine  on  top 3 

Chest — Low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs 8 

Brisket — Deep,  not  too  prominent  and  with  very  little  dewlap..  2 
Legs  and  Feet — Legs  well  apart,  straight  and  short,  shanks  fine 
and  smooth,  joints  firm,  feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and 
deep  2 

Body  18 

Back — Short  and  straight,  chine  strongly  developed  and  open 

jointed  5 

Loin — Broad,  strong  and  level 4 

Ribs — Long,  broad,  strong,  well  sprung  and  wide  apart 4 

Abdomen — Large  and  deep,  trimly  held  up  with  muscular  de- 
velopment   4 

Flank — Thin  and  arching 1 

Hind  Quarters  16 

Rump — Level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin  bones 5 

Hooks — Medium  distance  apart,  proportionately  narrower  than 

in  female,  not  rising  above  the  level  of  the  back 2 

Pin  Bones — High,  wide  apart 2 

Thighs — Thin,  long  and  wide  apart 4 

Tail — Fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back 1 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  straight,  set  well  apart,  shanks  fine  and 
smooth,  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep,  not  cross  in 
walking 2 

Scrotum. — Well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

Rudimentaries,  Veins,  Etc. — Teats  of  uniform  size,  squarely  placed, 
wide  apart  and  free  from  scrotum;  veins  long,  large,  tortuous  with 
extensions  entering  large  orifices,  escutcheon  pronounced  and  cov- 
ering a large  surface ' 4 

Color. — Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  mahogany  and 
white,  or  white,  each  color  distinctly  defined 3 

Covering  6 

Skin — Medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Hair — Soft  and  fine 2 

Secretions — Oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 1 

Style. — Active,  vigorous,  showing  strong  masculine  character,  tem- 
perament inclined  to  nervousness  but  not  irritable  or  vicious 5 

Weight. — At  maturity  not  less  than  1,500  pounds 4 

Total 100 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


35 


SCALE  OP  POINTS  FOR  BROWN  SWISS  COWS  AND  HEIFERS 

Head,  medium  size  and  rather  long 2 

Face,  dished,  narrow  between  horns  and  wide  between  eyes 2 

Ears,  large,  fringed  inside  with  light  colored  hair,  skin  inside  of  ear 

a deep  orange  color • 2 

Nose,  black,  large  and  square  with  mouth  surrounded  by  mealy  col- 
ored band,  tongue  black 2 

Eyes,  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

Horns,  short,  regularly  set  with  black  tips 2 

Neck,  straight,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head,  shoulders  of  good 

length,  moderately  thin  at  the  withers 4 

Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  fore  legs 6 

Back,  level  to  setting  of  tail  and  broad  across  the  loin 6 

Ribs,  long  and  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung  from  thin,  arching 

flanks  3 

Abdomen,  large  and  deep 5, 

Hips  wide  apart,  rump  long  and  broad 4 

Thighs,  wide,  quarters  not  thin 4 

Legs,  short  and  straight  with  good  hoofs 2 

Tail,  slender,  well  set  on,  with  good  switch 2 

Hide  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Color,  shades  from  dark  to  light  brown,  at  some  seasons  of  the  year 
grey;  white  splashes  near  udder  not  objectionable,  light  stripe  along 
back.  White  splashes  on  body  or  sides  objectionable.  Hair  between 

horns  usually  lighter  shade  than  body 4 

Fore  udder,  wide,  deep,  well  rounded  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy, 

extending  far  forward  on  the  abdomen 12 

Rear  udder,  wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy,  extending  well 

up  behind  12 

Teats,  rather  large,  set  well  apart  and  hanging  straight ......  8 

Milk,  veins  large,  long,  tortuous,  elastic  and  entering  good  wells 6 

Disposition  quiet  2 

Size,  evidence  of  constitution,  and  stamina 5 

100 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  BROWN  SWISS  BULL 

Head,  same  as  cow 2 

Face,  same  as  cow 2 

Expression,  full  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity 3 

Ears,  same  as  cow 2 

Nose,  same  as  cow 2 

Eyes,  same  as  cow 2 

Horns,  same  as  cow 2 

Neck,  of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong  in 
muscles  on  top,  sloping  symmetrically  to  shoulders.  Shoulders 

large  and  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body 10 

Chest,  same  as  cow v.  10 

Back,  same  as  cow 10 

Ribs  and  abdomen,  same  as  cow 10 

Hips,  same  as  cow 6 

Thighs,  same  as  cow 6 

Legs,  same  as  cow 2 

Tail,  same  as  cow 2 

Hide,  same  as  cow 3 

Color,  same  as  cow 4 

Scrotum  well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

Rudimentary  teats,  squarely  placed  wide  apart  and  fre'e  from  the 

scrotum  6 

Milk  veins,  same  as  cow 6 

Disposition  quiet  3 

Size,  evidence  of  constitution  and  stamina 4 

100 

Dark,  smoky  skins  very  objectionable. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


FIG.  18.— ORIGINALLY  FROM  SWITZERLAND 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  were  first  imported  into  America  from  Switzerland, 
their  native  home,  in  1869.  The  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders’  Associa- 
tion of  America  was  organized  in  1880  and  promotes  the  interests  of  the 
breed  in  this  country.  Ira  Inman,  Beloit,  Wisconsin,  is  the  present  sec- 
retary. 

College  Bravura  2d  2577  holds  the  world’s  record  for  this  breed  with 
19,460.6  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.10  per  cent,  and  798.16  pounds  of  butter 
fat.  Flora  Duwire  4105,  highest  production  Wisconsin  cow  of  this  breed, 
made  16,538.1  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.193  per  cent,  and  649.42  pounds  of 
butter  fat. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


37 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  GUERNSEY  COW 

Head. — Clean  cut,  lean  face,  wide  mouth  and  muzzle  with  open  nos- 
trils, full  bright  eye  with  gentle  expression.  F'orehead  long,  broad 


between  the  eyes  and  dishing 6 

Horns. — Small  at  base,  medium  length,  not  too  spreading 1 

Neck. — Long  and  thin;  clean  throat 2 

Withers. — Chine  rising  above  shoulder  blades,  that  are  moderately 
thick  and  not  coarse 3 

Back. — Straight  from  withers  to  hips 8 

Hips. — Wide  apart,  not  too  prominent 2 

Rump. — Long,  continuing  with  level  of  the  back,  also  level  between 
hip  bones  and  pin  bones 5 

Thurls. — Wide  apart  and  high *.  . . 2 

Chest. — Wide,  and  deep  at  heart,  w.ith  least  depression  possible  back 
of  the  shoulders  * 4 

Body. — Deep  and  long,  with  well-sprung  ribs  which  are  wide  apart. 
Broad  loin.  Thin  arching  flank 10 

Thighs. — Thin,  incurving  seen  from  side,  and  wide  apart  from  rear..  2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short,  clean,  wide  apart  and  nearly  straight 
when  viewed  from  behind,  squarely  set  under  body 2 

Hide. — Loose  and  pliable,  and  not  thick,  with  oily  feeling 3 

Tail. — Neat  and  firm  setting  on,  long,  good  switch 1 

Udder  18 

Veins  prominent  2 

Attachment  to  body  long  and  wide 2 

Extending  well  forward 5 

Level  and  well  up  behind 4 

Teats  of  good  even  size,  well  apart  and  squarely  placed 5 

Milk  Veins. — Long,  crooked,  branching  and  prominent,  with  large, 
deep  wells  4 


Secretions  Indicating  Color  of  Product. — Indicated  by  depth  of  yellow, 
inclining  toward  orange  in  the  pigment  secretion  in  the  skin,  on 
the  body  generally,  and  especially  discernible  in  the  ear,  at  the  end 
of  bone  of  tail,  around  the  eye,  on  the  udder  and  teats  and  at  the 


base  of  horns.  Hoofs  and  horns  amber  colored 20 

Color  Markings. — A shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings 2 

Size. — Mature  cows  about  1100  pounds  in  milking  condition 5 


100 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  GUERNSEY  BULL 

Head. — Clean  cut,  lean  face,  wide  mouth  and  muzzle,  with  open  nos- 
trils, and  full  bright  musculine  eye.  Broad  between  the  eyes  and 
dishing  8 

Horns. — Small  at  base,  medium  length,  not  too  spreading 1 

Neck. — Long  masculine  neck  with  strong  crest  and  clean  throat 4 

Withers. — Chine  rising  above  shoulder  blades,  that  are  moderately 
thick  and  not  coarse 3 

Back. — Straight  from  withers  to  hips 8 

Hips. — Wide  apart,  not  too  prominent 2 

Rump. — Long,  continuing  with  level  of  the  back,  also  level  between 
hip  bones  and  pin  bones 6 

Thurls. — Wide  apart  and  high 2 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep  at  heart,  least  depression  possible  back  of 
shoulders  6 

Body. — Deep  and  long,  with  well-sprung  ribs  which  are  wide  apart. 
Thin  arching  flank 10 

Thighs. — Thin,  fncurving  seen  from  side,  and  wide  apart  from  rear..  2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short,  clean,  wide  apart  and  nearly  straight 
when  viewed  from  behind,  squarely  set  under  body 2 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


FIG.  19.— ONE  OF  THE  CHANNEL  ISLAND  BREEDS 

Guernseys  have  their  origin  in  the  Islands  of  Guernsey  and  Alderney, 
off  the  coast  of  France  in  the  English  Channel.  They  were  imported 
into  America  as  early  as  1818,  but  not  until  1893  did  wide  public  interest 
in  this  breed  develop.  The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  organ- 
ized in  1877.  William  H.  Caldwell,  Peterboro,  New  Hampshire,  is  the 
present  secretary. 

Murne  Cowan  19597  holds  the  world’s  milk  record  for  this  breed  with 
a production  of  24,008  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.57  per  cent,  and  1,098.18 
pounds  of  butter  fat.  Countess  Prue  43785  is  the  highest  record  Guern- 
sey in  butter  fat  production.  Her  record  is  18,626.9  pounds  of  milk  and 
1,103.28  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

Yeksa’s  Tops  of  Gold’s  Fannie  22362  is  the  highest  production  Wis- 
consin cow  of  the  breed,  with  a record  of  19,794.9  pounds  of  milk  test- 
ing 4.64,  and  981.53  pounds  of  butter  fat. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


39 


Hide. — Loose  and  pliable,  and  not  thick,  with  oily  feeling 5 

Tail. — Neat  and  firm  setting  on,  long,  good  switch 1 

Rudimentary  Teats,. — Teats  wide  apart  and  squarely  placed 3 

Milk  Veins. — Long,  crooked,  branching  and  prominent,  with  large, 
deep  wells  5 

Secretions  Indicating  Color  of  Product. — Indicated  by  depth  of  yellow, 
inclining  toward  orange,  of  the  pigment  secretion  of  the  skin  on 
the  body  generally  and  especially  discernible  in  the  ear,  at  the  end 
of  bone  of  tail,  around  the  eye,  on  the  scrotum,  and  inside  of  thighs, 
and  at  base  of  horn.  Hoofs  and  horns  amber  colored 20 

Color  Markings. — A shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings 5 

Size. — Mature  bulls  about  1,600  pounds 7 


100 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


FIG.  20.— FIRST  BRED  TO  MEET  FRIESLAND’S  NEEDS 

The  native  home  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  is  in  North  Holland. 
Their  introduction  into  America  dates  back  to  the  17th  century.  The 
Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America  was  organized  to  promote  the 
breed  in  1885.  F.  L.  Houghton,  Brattleboro,  Vermont,  is  the  present  sec- 
retary. M.  H.  Gardner,  Delavan,  Wisconsin,  supervises  the  registration 
of  Advanced  Registry  animals. 

The  Holstein-FViesian  cow,  Segis  Pietertje  Prospect  221846,  holds  the 
world’s  milk  record  with  a production  of  37,381.4  pounds  of  milk  testing 
3.10  per  cent,  and  1,158.95  pounds  of  butter  fat.  Bella  Pontiac  46321  €. 
H.  B.  of  this  breed  holds  the  world’s  butter  fat  record  with  a production 
of  27,017.0  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.66  per  cent,  and  1,258.40  pounds  of 
butter  fat. 

Champion  Dora  Korndyke  134002  holds  the  Wisconsin  record  for  the 
breed  with  a production  of  29,395.7  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.58  per  cent, 
and  1,052.75  pounds  of  butter  fat. 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


41 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  COW 

Head. — Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance;  fine  in  contour 2 

Forehead. — Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing- 2 

Face. — Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  especially  under  the  eyes: 

showing  facial  vein's;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight 2 

Muzzle. — Broad,  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears. — Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful  and  soft;  the 

secretions  oily  and  abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large;  full;  mild;  bright 2 

Horns. — Small;  tapering  finely  towards  the  tips;  set  moderately  nar- 
row at  base;  oval;  inclining  forward;  well  bent  inward;  of  fine  tex- 
ture; in  appearance  waxy 1 

Neck. — Long;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the  head;  free  from  dew- 
lap; evenly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders 4 

Shoulders. — Slightly  lower  than  the  hips;  fine  and  even  over  tops; 

moderately  broad  and  full  at  sides 3 

Chest. — Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness;  smooth  and  moderately  full 

in  brisket;  full  in  the  foreflanks  (or  through  at  the  heart) 6 

Crops.— Moderately  full  2 

Chine. — Straight,  strong;  broadly  developed,  with  open  vertebrae....  6 
Barrel. — Long;  of  wedge  shape;  well  rounded;  with  a large  abdomen, 
trimly  held  up.  (In  judging  the  last  item  age  must  be  considered.)  7 
Loin  and  Hips. — Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  the  hookbones; 
level  and  strong  laterally;  spreading  from  chine  broadly  and  nearly 

level;  hookbones  fairly  prominent 6 

Rump. — Long;  high;  broad  with  roomy  pelvis;  nearly  level  laterally; 
comparatively  full  above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  drop- 
ping of  tail 6 

Thurl. — High,  broad  3 

Quarters. — Deep;  straight  behind;  twist  filled  with  development  of 

udder;  wide  and  moderately  full  at  the  sides 4 

Flanks. — Deep;  comparatively  full 2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight;  wide  apart; 
firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  feet  of  medium  size,  round, 
solid  and  deep 4 

Tail. — Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely  to  switch; 

the  end  of  the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below;  the  switch  full.  ...  2 

Hair  and  Handling. — Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft  and 
furry;  the  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow  under  the 
hand;  the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of  a rich  brown  or  yellow 

color  8 

Mammary  Veins. — Very  large;  very  crooked  (age  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  judging  of  size  and  crookedness);  entering  very 
large  or  numerous  orifices;  double  extension;  with  special  develop- 
ments, such  as  branches,  connections,  etc 10 

Udder. — Very  capacious;  very  flexible;  quarters  even;  nearly  filling 
the  space  in  the  rear  below  the  twist;  extending  well  forward  in  the 

front;  broad  and  well  held  up 12 

Teats. — Well  formed;  wide  apart;  plumb  and  of  convenient  size 2 

Escutcheon. — Largest;  finest  2 

Perfection  100 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL 

Head. — Showing  full  vigor;  elegant  in  contour 2 

Forehead. — Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing 2 

Face. — Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  especially  under  the  eyes; 

the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight 2 

Muzzle. — Broad,  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears. — Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful  and  soft; 

the  secretions  oily  and  abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large;  full;  mild;  bright 2 

Horns. — Short;  of  medium  size  at  base;  gradually  diminishing  towards 
tips;  oval;  inclining  forward;  moderately  curved  inward;  of  fine 

texture;  in  appearance  waxy ] 

Neck. — Long;  finely  crested  (if  the  animal  is  mature);  fine  and  clean 
at  juncture  with  the  head;  nearly  free  from  dewlap;  strongly  and 
smoothly  joined  to  shoulders 5 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Shoulders. — Of  medium  height;  of  medium  thickness,  and  smoothly 


rounded  at  tops;  broad  and  full  at  sides;  smooth  over  front 4 

Chest. — Deep  and  low;  well  filled  and  smooth  in  the  brisket;  broad- 
between  the  forearms;  full  in  the  foreflanks  (or  through  at  the 
heart)  7 

Crops. — Comparatively  full;  nearly  level  with  the  shoulders 4 

Chine. — Strong;  straight;  broadly  developed,  with  open  vertebrae....  6 

Barrel. — Long;  well  rounded;  with  large  abdomen,  strongly  and  trim- 
ly held  up . . .. 7 

Loin  and  Hips. — Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  hookbones;  level 
and  strong  laterally;  spreading  from  the  chine  broadly  and  nearly 
level;  the  hookbones  fairly  prominent 7 

Rump. — Long;  broad;  high;  nearly  level  laterally;  comparatively  full 
above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  dropping  of  tail 7 

Thurl. — High;  broad  4 

Quarters. — Deep;  broad;  straight  behind;  wide  and  full  at  sides;  open 
in  the  twist 5 


Flanks. — Deep;  full  2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight;  wide  apart; 
firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  arms  wide,  strong  and 
tapering;  feet  of  medium  size,  sound,  solid  and  deep 5 

Tail. — Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely  to  switch; 
the  end  of  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below;  the  switch  full 2 


Hair  and  Handling. — Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft  and 
furry;  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow  under  the  hand; 
the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of  a rich  brown  or  yellow  color.  . 10 


Mammary  Veins. — Large;  full;  entering  large  orifices;  double  exten- 
sion; with  special  development,  such  as  forks,  branches,  connec- 


tions, etc 10 

Rudimentary  Teats. — Large;  well  placed 2 


Escutcheon. — Largest;  finest  2 

Perfection  100 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  JERSEY  COW 


Head  7 

A.  Medium  size,  lean;  face  dished;  broaft  between  eyes;  horns 

medium  size,  incurving 3 

B.  Eyes  full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size,  fine,  carried  alert; 

muzzle  broad,  with  wide  open  nostrils  and  muscular  lips; 
jaw  strong  4 

Neck. — Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat,  neatly  joined  to  head 

and  shoulders  4 

Body  37 

A.  Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to  point, 

but  thin  at  withers;  chest  deep  and  full  between  and  just 
back  of  fore  legs . ....  5 

B.  Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  wedge  shape, 

with  deep,  large  abdomen,  firmly  held  up,  with  strong  mus- 
cular development  10 

C.  Back  straight  and  strong,  with  prominent  spinal  processes; 

loins  broad  and  strong 5 

D.  Rump  long  to  tail-setting,  and  level  from  hip-bones  to 

rump-bones  6 

E.  Hip-bones  high  and  wide  apart 3 . 

F.  Thighs  flat  and  wide  apart,  giving  ample  room  for  udder.  ...  3 

G.  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well  apart, 

with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in  walking 2 

H.  Hide  loose  and  mellow 2 

I.  Tail  thin,  long,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse  at  setting-on..  1 


Judging  Dairy  Cattle 


43 


FIG.  21. — ANOTHER  CHANNEL  ISLAND  BREED 
The  native  home  of  Jersey  cattle  is  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  in  the  Eng- 
lish Channel.  Jersey  cattle  were  imported  into  America  as  early  as  1818. 
The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in  1868.  R.  M.  Gow, 
324  West  Twenty-third  St.,  New  York  City,  is  the  present  secretary. 

Eminent’s  Bess  209719.  with  a production  of  18,783  pounds  of  milk  test- 
ing 5.12  per  cent,  and  962.80  pounds  of  butter  fat,  holds  the  world’s  milk 
record  for  this  breed.  Plain  Mary  268206  holds  the  world’s  fat  record  for 
this  breed  with  a production  of  15,255  pounds  of  milk  testing  6.82  per 
cent,  and  1,040  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

Trinket’s  Ebony  L.  292925  is  the  highest  production  Wisconsin  cow  of 
tne  breed  with  a record  of  14,112.2  pounds  of  milk  testing  5.38  per  cent, 
and  759.17  pounds  of  butter  fat. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  335 


Udder  : 26 

A.  Large  size,  flexible  and  not  fleshy 6 

B.  Broad,  level  or  spherical,  not  deeply  cut  between  teats 4 

C.  Fore  udder  full  and  well  rounded,  running  well  forward  of 

front  teats  10 

D.  Rear  udder  well  rounded,  and  well  out  and  up  behind 6 

Teats. — Of  good  and  uniform  length  and  size,  regularly  and  squarely 
placed  8 

Milk  Veins. — Large,  long,  tortuous  and  elastic,  entering  large  and 
numerous  orifices  4 

Size. — Mature  cows,  800  to  1,000  pounds 4 

General  Appearance. — A symmetrical' balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a 
proportion  of  parts  to  each  other,  depending  on  size  of  animal,  with 
the  general  appearance  of  a high-class  animal,  with  capacity  for 
food  and  productiveness  at  pail 10 

100 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  JERSEY  BULL 


Head  10 

A.  Broad,  medium  length;  face  dished;  narrow  between  horns; 

horns  medium  in  size  and  incurving 5 

B.  Muzzle  broad,  nostrils  open,  eyes  full  and  bold;  entire  ex- 
pression one  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity 5 

Neck. — Medium  length,  with  full  crest  at  maturity;  clean  at  throat.  . . 7 

Body  57 

A.  Shoulders  full  and  strong,  good  distance  through  from  point 

to  point,  with  well-defined  withers;  chest  deep  and  full  be- 
tween and  just  back  of  fore  legs 15 

B.  Barrel  long,  of  good  depth  and  breadth,  with  strong,  round- 
ed, well-sprung  ribs 15 

C.  Back  straight  and  strong 5 

D.  Rump  of  good  length  and  proportion  to  size  of  body,  and 

level  from  hip-bones  to  rump-bones 7 

E.  Loins  broad  and  strong;  hips  rounded,  and  of  medium  width 

compared  with  female 7 

F.  Thighs  rather  flat,  well  cut  up  behind,  high  arched  flank...  3 

G.  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well  apart, 

with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in  walking 5 

Rudimentary  Teats. — Well  placed 2 

Hide. — Loose  and  mellow 2 


Tail. — Thin,  long,  reaching  the  hock,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse 

or  high  at  setting-on 2 

Size. — Mature  bulls,  1,200  to  1,500  pounds 5 

General  Appearance. — Thoroughly  masculine  in  character,  with  a 
harmonious  blending  of  the  parts  to  each  other;  thoroughly  robust, 
and  such  an  animal  as  in  a herd  of  wild  cattle  would  likely  become 
master  of  the  herd  by  the  law  of  natural  selection  and  survival  of 
the  fittest  15 


100 


9 I 

Ibb 


bulletin  336 


agricultural  experiment  station 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


Digest 


If  the  house  is  dry  and  well  ventilated  the  poultry  flock  will  produce 

in  extremely  cold  weather. 

Page  3 

Ventilation  is  necessary.  A solid  glass  front  house  is  hot  during  the 
day  and  cold  at  night. 

Page  8 

Length  of  working  day  for  the  hen  controls  production.  Arrange  the 
glass  windows  to  obtain  sunlight  over  the  entire  floor. 

Page  9 

The  poultry  house  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  flock 
during  the  winter.  Overcrowding  lowers  egg  production. 

Pages  9-1U 

Does  frost  collect  on  the  ceiling?  Put  in  a straw  loft  over  the  roosts. 

Page  16 

All  the  fixtures  should  be  at  least  two  feet  above  the  floor.  This 

leaves  the  entire  floor  available  for  scratching. 

Pages  17-18 

The  kind  of  a house  and  not  the  cost  of  a house  determines  the  profit 
which  the  flock  can  make. 


Pages  21-30 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 

J.  G.  Halpin,  J.  B.  Hayes  and  O.  R.  Zeasman 


To  succeed  with  poultry,  provide  a suitable  house — one  that 
is  dry,  light,  airy,  clean,  and  free  from  drafts  and  sudden  changes 
in  temperature.  Hens  must  be  comfortable  if  they  are  to  be  good 
producers. 

On  many  farms  the  poultry  is  housed  in  an  old  building 
originally  made  for  some  other  purpose — such  as  a granary,  a 
machine  shed,  or  a woodshed.  Using  such  a house,  as  a rule,  is 
not  economical  because  it  is  difficult  to  remodel  it  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  flock. 

Build  the  house  on  a hillside  or  a well-drained  place,  so  that 
the  floor  and  yards  will  be  dry;  otherwise  the  flock  is  likely  to 
become  diseased.  Hens  can  withstand  extremely  cold,  dry  air 
but  not  dampness. 

Poultry  houses  should  be  conveniently  near  to  other  farm  build- 
ings, but  a site  should  be  chosen  where  the  hens  will  naturally 
range  toward  the  field  rather  than  toward  the  house.  Hens  re- 
main near  the  house  and  barn  to  get  shade  and  feed,  but  the 
use  of  an  orchard  for  a shady  range  and  the  practice  of  feeding 
the  hens  at  the  poultry  house  will  tend  to  keep  them  away  from 
the  farmhouse. 

If  possible,  build  the  house  on  ground  that  slopes  to  the  south 
and  face  it  in  that  direction  so  the  poultry  will  get  the  greatest 
amount  of  sunshine  on  short  winter  days. 

A windy  place  is  not  desirable  for  the  poultry  house.  If  no 
other  site  is  available  trees  and  shrubs  should  be  planted  to 
break  the  force  of  the  wind  and  afford  shelter  to  the  house — 
especially  during  fall  and  spring  when  the  winds  are  strong. 
One  side  of  the  orchard  can  often  be  chosen  as  a site  for  the 
poultry  house,  as  it  makes  an  ideal  range  during  part  of  the  year. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


Colony  House  System 

In  the  colony  house  system  only  one  flock  or  one  colony  is 
kept  in  a building. 

Colony  houses  are  of  two  types — the  portable  and  the  non- 
portable. The  portable  type  is  especially  adapted  to  growing 


FIG.  1.— PORTABLE  8'xl2'  COLONY  HOUSE 

An  ideal  portable  house  for  rearing  young  stock  on  range  and  for 
small  special  matings  during  the  breeding  season. 


young  stock.  The  usual  method  is  to  nail  the  house  on  runners 
and  have  a team  draw  it  from  place  to  place. 

This  type  of  house  saves  much  feed  which  otherwise  would  be 
wasted  in  the  fields  because  after  the  crop  has  been  harvested 
the  house  and  chickens  can  be  moved  into  the  field.  In  this  way 
poultry  is  always  kept  on  clean  ground  and  gets  more  insects 
than  would  be  possible  if  it  were  kept  around  the  farm  buildings. 
In  some  years,  especially  when  grasshoppers  are  numerous, 
chicks  out  in  the  field  will  pick  their  living  and  also  rid  the  farm 
of.  troublesome  insects. 

On  some  of  the  larger  farms  where  considerable  poultry  is 
kept,  it  is  possible  to  keep  the  chickens  in  portable  colony  houses 
all  their  lives.  The  young  stock  is  started  while  the  houses  are 
near  the  farm  buildings  so  that  it  can  be  protected  from  enemies. 
As  the  chicks  get  older  they  can  be  moved  farther  from  the  build- 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


5 


ings  out  into  the  field.  Toward  fall  the  houses  are  drawn  in  near 
the  farm  buildings  and  placed  close  together  so  that  they  can  be 
cared  for  easily  throughout  the  winter. 

A small  house  of  the  non-portable  type  is  often  used  on  the 
general  farm,  but  the  hens  abuse  the  pullets  in  the  fall  when  all 
the  chickens  are  put  in  one  colony.  Moreover,  with  this  type 
of  house  there  is  no  chance  to  select  the  best  laying  and  most 
vigorous  females.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  enough  males 
to  fertilize  the  eggs  of  the  entire  flock. 

The  Long  House  System 

Long  houses  with  or  without  cross  partitions,  .are  used  on 
many  large  poultry  farms.  They  are  less  expensive  to  build,  and 
less  labor  is  required  to  care  for  the  fowls,  as  the  poultry  man 
can  go  from  one  pen  to  another  more  quickly  than  from  one 


FIG.  2.— LONG  POULTRY  HOUSE  AT  WISCONSIN  COLLEGE  OF 
AGRICULTURE 


Practical  commercial  type  for  a breeder  of  several  varieties.  A 
single  unit  makes  a good  house  for  a farm  flock. 

detached  house  to  another.  Long  houses  have  the  ground  more 
closely  stocked  so  that  there  is  much  less  natural  feed  such  as 
insects  and  green  grass. 

As  large  numbers  of  chickens  are  kept  closely  together,  the 
tendency  to  disease  is  greater.  The  grounds  and  buildings  need 
more  careful  watching  to  keep  them  sanitary. 

Where  many  hens  are  kept  together,  the  tendency  to  form 
bad  habits,  such  as  egg  eating,  is  much  more  pronounced. 

The  long  house  with  partitions  across  it  is  usually  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  long  house  without  partitions.  If  there  are  several 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


partitions  in  a house  one  can  divide  the  hens  with  advantage  and 
treat  them  much  more  as  colonies  of  chickens  are  treated. 

Methods  of  Yarding 

With  this  type  of  house  several  methods  of  yarding  can  be 
used.  A good  method  is  shown  in  Figure  3.  In  this  diagram 
each  pen  has  a separate  yard  on  the  south  where  the  stock  is 
allowed  to  run  in  fall  and  early  spring.  The  north  side  is  left 
as  an  open  field  in  which  the  hens  run  during  summer  after  the 
breeding  season.  Since  they  are  used  to  their  pens,  the  majority 
return  to  their  own  places  without  trouble.  While  they  are  in 
the  north  yard,  the  south  yard  is  cultivated  and  sown  to  a crop 
of  buckwheat  and  rye  to 
sweeten  the  ground  and  to 
furnish  fall  and  spring 
pasture.  This  sowing 
should  be  done  in  June  or 
early  in  July.  The  space 
directly  north  of  the  house 
is  more  likely  to  become 
contaminated,  so  that  it  is 
desirable  to  grow  a crop 
of  some  kind  on  this  each 
year.  Corn  or  sunflowers 
are  often  grown  in  the 
yards  to  furnish  shade. 

The  principal  thing  is  to 
keep  the  ground  constant- 
ly cultivated  to  get  rid  of 
filth. 

Unless  the  chickens  are 
given  free  range  the  con- 
tinuous house  without 
partition  should  be  yarded 

on  both  north  and  south.  , 

This  type  of  house  is  less 
expensive,  as  there  are  no 
inside  fences  in  the  yard. 

The  chief  trouble  with 
this  system  is  that  the 
hens  crowd  to  the  end  of 

the  house  at  feeding  time  FIG-  3-cultiva^  the  poultry 
unless  only  hopper  feed- 

i‘nrr  i' c A nnp  An  Fruit  trees  or  corn  provide  summer 

ls  none,  /vn  expert  shade  and  cultivation  keeps  the  soil 
can  handle  a large  flock,  Clean.  Green  feed,  such  as  oats  or  clo- 
° ver,  should  be  planted. 


FIG.  3. — CULTIVATE  THE  POULTRY 
YARD 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


7 


but  an  amateur  might  better  care  for  fewer  hens  and  give  each  one 
more  attention. 

Farmers  who  keep  only  a few  chickens,  as  well  as  large  poultry 
plant  owners,  can  use  the  small  portable  houses  for  growing 
chicks.  They  are  especially  good  for  pullets,  which  develop  much 
better  on  free  range  than  when  closely  confined.  Many  Wisconsin 
farmers  have  adopted  portable  colony  houses  for  brooding. 

The  general  farm  on  which  only  a few  chickens  are  kept  should 
have  a divided  house.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  make  up  the 
breeding  pens  from  the  best  hens  and  pullets  in  the  spring,  and 
then  later  to  allow  all  to  run  together  if  advisable.  In  either 
case  it  is  better  to  fence  in  the  hens  that  are  not  kept  for  breeding 
purposes  and  give  the  breeding  flock  free  range  of  the  farm.  No 
matter  what  system  is  used,  always  encourage  the  hens  to  range 
near  their  house  and  away  from  the  other  farm  buildings.  To 
do  this  keep  the  house  clean.  It  pays  to  store  the  feed  in  the 
poultry  house  so  that  the  hens  will  expect  to  be  fed  from  there 
and  not  from  the  barn. 

Feeding  fowls  from  the  back  porch  teaches  them  to  come  to 
the  house  where  they  are  pests.  All  the  kitchen  scraps  used  for 
poultry  feed  should  be  put  in  a pail,  carried  to  the  poultry  house 
and  fed  in  a clean  place  or  in  clean  troughs  near  the  house. 

Fencing  the  Yard 

Confining  the  hens  in  a small  yard  is  another  common  mistake. 
Frequently  a little  more  fence  could  be  used  around  the  garden 
and  house  and  the  hens  kept  where  desired  yet  allowed  abundant 
range.  At  times  a rather  closely-woven  field  fence  could  be  put 
around  the  orchard  and  thus  give  the  hens  plenty  of  room  with- 
out much  added  expense.  A low  fence  will  confine  hens  when 
they  are  allowed  a gbod  sized  range  but  a high  fence  is  necessary 
where  the  range  is  small. 

Ventilation 

A poultry  house  usually  needs  more  ventilation  than  it  gets. 
Fresh  air  is  far  more  important  than  warmth.  Fresh  air  means 
health,  but  must  never  be  supplied  by  a draft.  The  hen  was 
never  intended  to  live  in  a house.  A tree  is  her  natural  home; 
but  the  northern  winters  are  so  cold  that  it  is  impossible  to  get 
eggs  from  hens  roosting  in  trees  as  it  takes  all  they  can  eat  to 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


keep  them  alive.  The  poultry  house  then,  should  furnish  pro- 
tection from  storms  and  cold  winds  and  yet  give  freedom  to  the 
hen.  Both  feeding  floor  and  roosting  place  should  be  dry  and 


clean.  If  a house  is  damp  in  winter  it  is  usually  because  there 
is  not  enough  ventilation;  and  more  fresh  air  must  be  admitted 
to  carry  out  the  dampness  and  bad  air. 

There  are  three  common  ways  of  ventilating  a poultry  house. 
The  King  system,  or  a form  of  it,  is  the  most  general  but  its 
success  depends  upon  the  location  of  the  other  farm  buildings. 
When  the  low  poultry  house  is  placed  between  higher  farm 
buildings  such  as  a house  and  barn  a dead  air  space  results  with 
no  draft  through  the  outlet  flue. 

Muslin  or  burlap  may  be  used  to  replace  another  window. 
When  this  is  used  the  dust  must  be  swept  off  regularly  and  the 
windows  opened  during  the  day  to  air  out  the  house.  Use  1 
square  foot  of  cloth  to  15  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

The  baffler  is  a new  ventilator  that  has  been  giving  good  re- 
sults. It  is  a modification  of  the  old-fashioned  shutters  formerly 
used  on  houses.  They  were  not  suitable  because  too  much  cold 
air  was  allowed  to  enter  the  house,  but  the  present  construction 
(see  Fig.  4)  allows  the  poultry  to  receive  a constant  supply  of 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


9 


fresh  air  without  a draft.  Common  building  laths  are  used  as 
shown  in  the  diagram.  The  bafflers  are  used  during  the  winter 
and  removed  in  summer.  They  are  made  so  that  they  need  al- 
most no  attention  except  to  open  the  windows  during  the  day. 
Allow  1 square  foot  of  baffler  to  20  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

Glass  Windows 

A poultry  house  should  have  about  1 square  foot  of  glass  to 
every  10  or  12  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Thus  for  a 20x20 
poultry  house  one  needs  40  square  feet  of  glass.  The  window 
pane  should  be  the  same  size  as  those  already  in  use  in  the 
barn  and  other  buildings  as  it  is  a decided  advantage  to  have  all 
the  windows  uniform.  The  usual  size  is  8"xl0"  or  10"xl2". 

Windows  should  reach  from  within  2 feet  of  the  floor  to  6 
inches  or  1 foot  from  the  plate.  This  is  the  only  way  to  spread 
light  evenly  over  the  floor  of  the  house. 

Windows  should  be  made  to  open  in  readily  from  the  top  to 
admit  fresh  air  during  mild  winter  days.  A window  that  opens 
at  the  top  is  best  as  there  is  less  draught  on  the  hens. 

Glass  windows  should  be  cleaned  frequently  because  egg  pro- 
duction depends  to  a decided  extent  on  the  length  of  the  day. 
If  the  windows  are  clean  the  hens  will  be  off  the  roost  early  in 
the  morning  and  stay  off  late  at  night  which  will  mean  more  eggs. 
In  summer  the  glass  windows  should  be  taken  out  and  stored 
where  they  will  not  be  broken.  The  window  space  should  always 
be  covered  on  the  outside  with  l-inch  mesh  chicken,  wire  to  keep 
out  sparrows  and  owls. 

The  Size  of  the  House 

The  size  of  the  house  depends  upon  the  number  of  fowls  that 
are  to  be  kept  in  one  pen,  and  the  fact  that  they  should  be  con- 
fined constantly  during  the  winter. 

Fowls,  as  a rule,  are  kept  too  crowded  for  best  results.  A 
flock  of  fifty  hens  should  be  allowed  about  4 square  feet  of 
floor  space  per  hen.  If  the  house  is  kept  clean  and  the  floor 
heavily  littered  with  straw,  less  floor  space  will  be  needed.  In 
general,  too  much  floor  space  is  far  better  than  too  little.  The 
larger  the  pen,  the  less  floor  space  will  be  required  for  each  hen. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


(Fig.  5.)  One  hundred  hens  will  thrive  in  a pen  20x20  feet — 
that  is,  4 square  feet  of  floor  space  per  hen — but  one  hen  will 
not  thrive  in  a pen  2x2  feet.  In  the  large  pen,  each  one  may- 
wander  over  the  entire  floor  space  and  thus  get  more  exercise. 
As  the  number  in  the  flock  decreases  the  amount  of  floor  space 
per  hen  must  increase.  Anyone  keeping  eight  or  ten  hens  should 
allow  at  least  10  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  hen,  unless  he 
will  give  special  attention  to  cleaning  and  bedding  the  house.  A 
crowded  poultry  house  causes  poor  winter  egg  production  on 
many  farms. 


Farm  hens  are  frequently 
kept  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
square  foot  of  floor  space 
per  hen.  Where  hens  have 
access  to  the  barnyard,  straw 
stack,  and  feed  lots,  the 
amount  of  floor  space  per 
hen  is  not  so  important  be- 
cause the  house  then  becomes 
a roosting  place  and  the  barn- 
yard is  the  feeding  floor. 
When  a farm  flock  is  in- 
creased the  hens  are  often 
too  closely  kept.  When  80 
hens  are  kept  in  a house  which 
is  large  enough  for  only  40, 

Cull  the  flock  to  fit  the  house;  loo  ‘he  results  are  discourag- 
hens  may  live  but  cannot  produce  in  mg.  It  IS  always  best 
a house  designed  (or  50.  to  seH  SOme  of  the  hens 

rather  than  to  keep  more  than  the  house  will  hold  satisfactorily. 


The  Width  of  the  House 

It  is  far  cheaper,  as  a general  rule,  to  build  a wide  house  than 
a narrow  one.  A house  20x20  is  cheaper  than  one  10x40  and 
contains  as  much  floor  space  for  the  hens.  The  house  should  be 
between  16  and  20  feet  deep.  The  deeper  it  is  the  warmer  the 
roosting  quarters  will  be  in  winter  and  the  cooler  in  summer. 

Types  of  Roofs' 

Several  common  types  of  roofs  are  used  on  poultry  houses — 
(Fig.  6.)  The  style  is  largely  a matter  of  choice  but  the  type  of 
roof  affects  the  cost  of  building  to  quite  an  extent. 

Shed  Roof.  A shed  roof  or  “one  slant,”  (Fig.  6-1)  is  the 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


11 


most  common  and  requires  less  cutting  of  rafters.  It  turns  all 
the  water  to  the  north  leaving  the  south  or  front  dry  and  warm. 
In  building  a shed  roof  wider  than  14  feet,  heavy  material 
should  be  used  for  rafters  or  else  supporting  beams  should 


FIG.  6. — TYPES  OF  ROOFS  FOR  POULTRY  HOUSES 

1.  Shed.  2.  Combination.  3.  Gable.  4.  Semi-monitor.  5.  Monitor.  6. 
Slanting-  front.  7.  A-shaped.  The  first  three  are  the  really  practical 
types  for  most  farm  poultry  houses. 

be  run  lengthwise  throughout  the  house.  The  roof  on  the  poul- 
try house,  as  a rule,  is  built  rather  flat,  not  over  one-fifth  pitch. 
A shed  roof  also  gives  a low  rear  elevation  which  makes  the 
house  warm,  but  has  disadvantages  in  some  locations  as  the  high 
front  catches  strong  south  winds,  and  also  heats  up  rapidly  dur- 
ing sunny  winter  days.  Most  of  the  prepared  roofings  last  longer 
on  a north  slope,  and,  therefore,  are  particularly  adapted  to  the 
shed  roof  type. 

Combination  Roof.  The  roof  shown  in  Fig.  6-2  is  a modi- 
fication of  the  ^hed  roof  but  is  more  attractive,  giving  the  same 
low  elevation  in  the  rear  and  a lower  elevation  in  front.  This 
roof  can  be  built  wider  and  is  especially  valuable  in  houses  more 
than  14  feet  wide.  Built  with  the  same  pitch  of  roof  and  with 
the  same  elevation  in  the  rear  this  house  contains  less  air  space 
and  is,  therefore,  warmer  than  the  shed  roof  type.  In  construct- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


ing  this  roof  it  is  usually  better  to  build  the  gable  back  one-third 
of  the  way  from  the  front.  That  is,  on  a house  18  feet  wide  the 
gable  should  be  6 feet  back  from  the  front.  This  type  of  roof 
should  be  used  more  extensively  than  it  now  is. 

Gable  Roof.  The  gable  roof  shown  in  Fig.  6-3  is  a common 
type  often  used  because  it  matches  the  other  buildings  on  the 
farm.  This  roof  permits  the  house  to  be  built  in  any  desired 
width,  but  gives  more  air  space  and  therefore  tends  to  make  the 
poultry  house  cold.  That  is,  too  high  a rear  elevation  is  needed 
to  get  the  front  high  enough  to  admit  sunshine  and  to  allow  for 
a door.  The  air  space  of  such  a house  may  be  decreased  by 
putting  a ceiling  from  plate  to  plate,  placing  the  boards  so  that 
about  one  inch  space  is  left  between  each.  Then  cover  this  with 
about  one  foot  of  straw  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  readily  from 
the  pen  up  through  the  straw.  To  make  this  complete,  cut  a 
small  door  or  window  in  each  gable  end  and  keep  these  windows 
open  except  during  severe  storms.  This  will  be  found  the  best 
way  to  remodel  many  of  the  old  gable  roof  houses. 

Semi-Monitor  Roof.  This  type  (Fig.  6-4)  is  practical  and 
often  used.  Many  of  the  old  narrow  shed  roof  houses  are  re- 
modeled by  building  an  addition  on  the  south  side  forming  a roof 
of  this  type  which  is  better  adapted  to  a small  stationary  house 
than  to  a long  one.  It  is  unsuitable  for  a continuous  house  as  the 
south  side  is  built  so  low  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  clean 
out  the  litter  without  carrying  it  to  the  end  of  the  building.  It  is 
possible  with  this  type  of  roof  to  reduce  the  air  space  and  thus  to 
admit  sunshine  into  the  back  of  the  pen,  making  a very  practical 
small  poultry  house.  Many  times  the  south  side  needs  only  to  be 
covered  with  wire. 


Types  of  Foundations 

Portable  colony  houses  should  be  built  on  two  runners  either  of 
4x4  material,  or  better,  two  small  trees  of  small  durable  wood  flat- 
tened on  top  and  tapered  off  at  both  ends.  Usually  it  is  better  to 
treat  the  runners  with  some  wood  preservative  before  building  the 
house  and  then  stand  them  on  blocks  or  stones  to  keep  them  off 
the  ground.  Some  poultrymen  use  2x4  pieces  spiked  together, 
and  as  fast  as  the  lower  one  rots,  it  is  removed  and  a new  one 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


13 


spiked  fast.  A stationary  house  should  have  a 3-foot  cement  wall 
as  a foundation. 

Where  rats  are  troublesome  a substantial  cement  foundation  is 
a good  investment.  This  should  always  be  brought  from  6 inches 
to  a foot  above  the  surface  and  then  filled  in  with  coarse  material 
such  as  gravel.  In  extremely  wet  locations,  especially  in  clay  soil, 
it  often  pays  to  excavate  under  the  entire  house  and  replace  with 
stones  or  other  coarse  material,  and  then  connect  with  tile  drains 
to  remove  all  the  water  from  under  the  house.  In  places  where 
stones  are  abundant,  poultry  houses  are  put  on  stone  walls,  but 
unless  cement  is  used  to  fasten  the  stones  together  securely,  rats 
will  often  work  under  the  house  and  do  a great  deal  of  damage. 
A loose  stone  wall  is  an  ideal  dwelling  place  for  rats  and  should 
never  be  placed  under  a poultry  house. 

Kinds  of  Floors 

In  many  localities  a sand  or  dirt  floor  is  cheap  and  advisable. 
Hens  like  a dirt  floor  if  it  is  dry.  It  makes  a natural  dust  wallow 
but  must  be  replaced  often  in  order  to  keep  the  house  sanitary.  A 
dirt  floor  must  always  be  well  above  the  outside  surface  so  that 
the  water  drains  away  leaving  the  floor  dry  and  comfortable  for 
the  fowls.  Where  a cement  foundation  is  used  for  the  house,  one 
can  frequently  tamp  the  surface  hard  and  then  fill  in  to  the  top  of 
the  foundation  with  sand.  This  sand  should  be  replaced  each  year 
before  cold  weather. 

A cement  floor  is  much  easier  to  keep  clean  and  is  durable  and 
rat  proof.  A cement  floor  should  never  be  left  bare  but  should  be 
kept  constantly  covered  with  at  least  three  inches  of  sand  and  with 
from  six  to  ten  inches  of  straw  in  winter.  When  sand  cannot  be 
had,  extra  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  floor  heavily  littered 
so  that  none  of  it  becomes  bare. 

A cement  floor  should  always  be  just  even  with  the  top  of  the 
foundation  so  that  the  entire  surface  is  smooth  and  easily  cleaned. 
Where  cement  floor  and  foundation  are  placed  in  the  house,  it  is 
usually  better  to  put  in  the  floor  before  building  the  house.  The 
best  method  is  to  dig  a trench  for  the  foundation,  fill  it  with  con- 
crete, erect  the  forms  to  the  desired  height  and  fill  with  concrete. 
As  soon  as  the  foundation  is  at  all  hard,  remove  the  form  from 
the  inside  and  immediately  fill  with  cinders  if  available.  Tamp 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


hard  and  quickly  lay  the  cement  floor  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  By 
building  the  cement  floor  while  the  foundation  is  green  the  floor 
and  the  foundation  become  well  fastened  together  and  absolutely 
rat  proof. 


FIG.  7.— PROPERLY  CONSTRUCTED  CONCRETE  FLOOR 

Keep  the  top  of  the  floor  8 to  12  inches  above  the  surrounding 
ground  for  proper  drainage. 


Walls  of  the  Poultry  House 

Poultry  house  walls  must  keep  out  rains,  snow,  and  cold  winds. 
They  must  also  be  reasonably  durable  and  not  too  expensive.  The 
walls  on  the  north,  east,  and  west  are  made  wind-tight  to  prevent 
drafts.  Cement  blocks  have  been  used  but  do  not  give  universal 
satisfaction.  Solid  cement  walls  should  never  be  used  in  a poul- 
try house  as  they  become  damp  and  frost  covered. 

Most  poultry  houses  are  built  with  wooden  walls.  It  is  usual  to 
use  2x4’s  about  two  feet  apart  for  studding  and  either  matched 
lumber  or  rough  lumber  with  roofing  paper  or  battens  to  make  the 
wall  wind-proof.  Matched  lumber,  like  drop  siding,  is  usually 
placed  on  horizontally  and  is  used  quite  extensively  as  such  a 
house  looks  good  and  can  be  built  rapidly-  Matched  siding  of  any 
kind  should  be  dry,  well  driven  together  and  well  nailed  so  as  to 
be  wind-proof.  All  matched  lumber  used  in  this  way  should  be 
of  good  grade  and  free  from  loose  knots  or  other  defects.  One- 
ply  roofing  paper  placed  between  the  siding  and  studding  adds 
warmth  and  insures  a wind-proof  wall. 

Many  old  poultry  houses  are  built  with  rough  boards  running 
up  and  down  and  the  cracks  covered  with  battens.  This  is  not 
good  because  the  battens  become  loose  and  leave  cracks  which 
are  very  undesirable.  Rough  boarding,  either  perpendicular  or 
horizontal,  is  also  being  used  widely.  When  covering  rough 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


15 


boards  with  roofing  paper  cement  the  joints  thoroughly  and  batten 
them  with  thin  strips  at  least  every  two  feet.  Cover  the  entire  sur- 
face with  two  coats  of  good  paint.  Other  walls  are  built  by  nail- 
ing rough  boarding  to  the  outside  of  the  studding,  covering  with 
tar  building  paper,  and  then  with  ordinary  siding  such  as  is  often 
used  on  houses.  With  any  of  these  materials  a tight  wall  can  be 
constructed. 


Selecting  Roofing  Material 

Prepared  roofing  materials  are  proving  very  satisfactory.  Many 
houses  have  such  flat  roofs  that  shingles  are  not  desirable.  Two 
or  three-ply  roofing  paper  is  cheaper  and,  especially  on  a flat  roof, 
is  more  advisable.  Where  the  roof  is  somewhat  steep  and  shingles 
of  good  quality  can  be  purchased  they  will  be  found  to  be  more 
durable.  When  prepared  roofings  are  used,  it  is  always  best  to 
use  a good  grade  of  boards  for  the  roof.  Hemlock  shiplap  makes 
a smooth,  tight  surface  on  which  prepared  roofing  can  be  laid 
easily.  Roofing  materials  last  much  longer  on  a smooth  surface 
of  this  kind  and  will  pay  for  the  extra  cost. 

Materials  for  Partitions 

In  a small  house — that  is,  one  not  over  30  feet  long — use  boards 
for  the  partitions  for  about  2 feet  up  from  the  floor.  The  rest 
may  be  of  wire  except  between  the  roosts  of  the  different  pens 
where  the  boards  should  run  to  the  roof.  A solid  partition  at  the 
back  prevents  draft  on  the  fowls  when  roosting  and  a solid  parti- 
tion at  the  bottom  prevents  fighting. 

In  very  long  houses  it  is  desirable  to  put  in  solid  partitions, 
either  for  each  pen  or  at  intervals  of  about  forty  feet  according 
to  the  size  of  the  pen  and  the  location  of  the  building.  In  a windy 
location  solid  partitions  will  be  found  necessary  more  often  in 
order  to  cut  down  the  draft. 

Long  houses  should  have  doors  in  each  partition  arranged  in 
a straight  line  and  hung  with  double  action  hinges.  In  a long 
poultry  house — over  100  feet — a trolley  system  makes  it  easier 
to  care  for  the  fowls. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


FIG.  8.— AN  OLD  HOUSE  BROUGHT  UP  TO  DATE 

Three  additional  sash  on  this  house  improved  the  lighting1,  gave  better 
ventilation,  and  increased  production.  A damp,  dark  house  is  one 
cause  of  disease. 


The  Straw  Loft 

When  the  baffler  does  not  control  the  ventilation  and  frost  col- 
lects on  the  ceiling,  put  in  a straw  loft.  Build  a frame  either  of 
wire  or  of  loose  poles  about  two  or  three  feet  above  the  roosts 
and  extending  their  full  length.  The  frame  should  extend  out  in 
front  of  the  roosts  about  a foot.  Fill  the  space  to  the  roof  with 
loose  straw.  Fasten  wire  across  the  front  of  this  loft  to  prevent 
hens  nesting  there.  This  straw  pack  will  absorb  excess  moisture, 
prevent  frost,  and  keep  the  house  dry. 

In  the  spring  remove  the  straw,  otherwise  it  will  act  as  a hiding 
place  for  mites.  The  straw  loft  combined  with  the  baffler 
gives  excellent  results. 

Arranging  Interior  Fixtures 

The  interior  should  be  arranged  to  make  it  easy  to  clean  the 
house  and  care  for  the  fowls. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


17 


Perches.  All  the  perches  should  be  on  the  same  level  because 
otherwise  the  fowls  will  fight  to  roost  on  the  highest  and  many  of 
them  will  be  hurt  by  falling  off.  Perches  should  be  in  the  warm- 
est part  of  the  pen  so  that  the  hens  will  not  be  cold  during  the 
night  when  they  are  inactive.  If  perches  are  removable  it  is  easier 
to  clean  and  disinfect  them  as  well  as  to  fight  mites. 

Small  hens,  as  a general  rule,  should  have  about  6 inches  of 
perch  space  and  larger  hens  should  be  allowed  8 inches.  In  win- 
ter, hens  huddle  closer  together  but  in  summer  they  should  have 
plenty  of  room.  Perches  should  be  12  to  14  inches  apart  and  not 
closer  than  14  inches  to  the  wall  or  ceiling.  Show  birds,  especially 
Leghorns,  or  similar  types,  should  be  kept  farther  from  the  walls 
and  ceilings.  Many  good  birds  are  spoiled  by  “brooming”  their 
tails  against  the  walls. 

Movable  perches  may  be  made  in  several  ways.  A common 
method  is  to  hinge  them  to  the  wall  at  the  back.  If  these  hinges 
are  made  with  loose  pins  the  entire  set  of  perches  can  be  readily 
removed.  The  perch  itself  should  not  be  fastened  to  the  support- 
ing cross  piece  but  should  be  set  into  notches  as  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
A frame  covered  with  one-inch  mesh  wire  should  be  fastened 
under  the  perches  to  keep  the  hens  from  getting  access  to  the  drop- 
pings. This  will  also  catch  any  eggs  laid  at  night ; and  by 
keeping  the  hens  from  dropping  boards,  cleaner  market  eggs 
will  result. 

Dropping  Boards.  If  the 
hens  are  fed  inside  the  house 
in  winter,  place  boards  under 
the  perches  to  catch  the  ma- 
nure. This  keeps  the  floor 
clean  so  that  it  can  be  used 
for  feeding.  When  no  drop- 
ping boards  are  used,  a wide 
board  should  he  placed  in 
front  of  the  perches  on  the 
floor  to  keep  the  litter  away 
from  the  droppings  under  the 
roost.  Dropping  boards  in- 
crease the  size  of  the  feed 
floor  and  must  be  cleaned 
often  because  they  are 
close  to  the  fowls,  but 
if  the  manure  is  properly 
handled  enough  fertilizer  is 


FIG.  9. — HTNGED  PERCHES  AND 
DROPPING  BOARD 

Fasten  the  roosts  against  the  wall 
during  the  day  to  keep  the  hens  busy 
on  the  floor. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


saved  to  pay  for  the  extra  labor.  A clean  poultry  house  means 
healthy  fowls.  On  the  general  farm,  dropping  boards  may  be 
used  in  the  fall  and  winter  and  kept  clean  without  great  difficulty. 


In  the  spring,  when  other  farm  work  is  pressing,  they  may  be 
removed  because  the  hens  are  running  at  large  and  are  no  longer 
fed  in  the  poultry  house.  Where  this  system  is  used  the  boards 
must  be  removed  in  the  spring  and  not  left  to  accumulate  a large 
amount  of  droppings  as  this  would  be  unhealthful  for  the  poultry. 
A hinged  roost  and  dropping  board  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  This  is  a 
good  arrangement  because  the  droppings  are  cleaned  each  morn- 
ing and  then  the  perches  and  board  may  be  swung  out  of  the  way 
giving  the  hens  a clear  open  space.  This  method  is  used  in  the 
long  poultry  house  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Nests.  Every  poultry  house  should  have  plenty  of  nests.  They 
should  be  easy  to  get  at  and  readily  removed  for  cleaning  and  dis- 
infecting. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


19 


The  nests  may  be  placed  under  the  front  edge  of  the  dropping 
board,  and  so  arranged  that  the  hens  enter  from  the  rear  and 
the  poultryman  gathers  the  eggs  by  opening  a door  or  doors  on 
the  front  side. 

The  objections  to  this  plan  are  that  the  floor  under  the  dropping 
boards  is  of  little  use  in  feeding  and  also  is  dark  so  that  the  hens 
are  more  likely  to  lay  in  the  straw  on  the  floor  than  in  the  nests. 
The  result  often  is  that  eggs  are  not  gathered  for  several  days. 

In  most  poultry  houses  the  purpose  of  the  dropping  boards  is 
defeated  if  the  nests  are  placed  below  them.  This  means  that  a 
larger  house  must  be  planned,  as  the  exercising  space  for  each  is 
reduced  because  the  hens  will  not  utilize  the  dark  space  back  of 
the  nests.  The  best  arrangement  is  to  have  the  nests  on  the  wall. 

A common  plan  is  to  fasten  small  open  boxes  to  the  walls  of  the 
poultry  house.  If  the  boxes  become  infested  with  mites,  the  en- 
tire box  can  be  burned  and  new  ones  used.  This  method  does  not 
allow  trap  nesting,  and  the  nests  are  not  dark,  yet  it  is  used  widely 
by  poultrymen. 

There  are  several  good  types  of  wall  nests,  some  darkened  and 
others  not.  Figure  10  shows  a successful  type. 

A nest  for  a Leghorn  or  other  small  hen  should  be  12  inches 
square ; for  the  larger  varieties,  14  inches  square.  The  nest  should 
give  at  least  12  inches  head  room  and  be  about  14  inches  high. 
With  an  average  flock,  one  nest  to  four  or  five  hens  is  enough. 
Nests  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  bedded  with  fine  straw  or  hay. 
Shavings  or  excelsior  may  stain  the  eggs.  Coarse  straw  and  other 
harsh  materials  are  not  good  because  a hen  likes  a pliable,  soft 
substance  in  the  nest. 

Watering  Devices.  Water  should  be  in  a convenient  place.  It 
is  best  to  make  a small  stand  about  one  foot  above  the  floor  and 
put  the  water  dish  on  this.  The  water  stand  should  be  in  a light 
place  where  it  is  convenient  to  empty  the  dish  and  refill  it.  The 
water  dish  will  keep  cleaner,  as  a rule,  if  it  is  near  the  south  side 
of  the  building. 

A low  pail  or  a pan  is  a convenient  water  dish.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  use  only  watering  devices  that  can  be  readily  cleaned.  A 
dirty  drinking  dish  is  often  a source  of  disease. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


FIG.  11.— USE  THE  DOOR  AS  A 
WINDOW 

The  inner  door  should  be  short 
enough  to  swing  over  the  litter. 
The  outer  screen  door  keeps  the 
hens  confined  and  furnishes  sum- 
mer ventilation. 


FIG.  12.— SANITATION  IN  THE 
POULTRY  HOUSE 

An  elevated  stand  for  the  water 
pan  keeps  the  litter  dry  and  the 
water  clean.  The  grit  and  shell 
hopper  are  also  available. 


Dust  Bath.  In  the  winter  a dust  bath  should  be  placed  near  an 
open  window  so  that  the  sun  shines  on  it  during  a part  of  the  day. 
A common  box  filled  with  fine  sand  or  sifted  coal  ashes,  and  road 
dust  makes  a good  dust  bath.  In  a house  which  has  a dry  sand 
floor  or  a cement  floor  covered  with  three  or  four  inches  of  fine 
sand,  a dust  bath  is  seldom  needed  because  the  hens  will  wallow 
in  the  sand  on  the  floor. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


21 


FIG.  13.— FEED  HOPPER 
The  use  of  a self-feeder  increases  egg-  production. 


Bill  of  Material  for  Feed  Hopper 


Use 

No.  Pieces 

Dimensions 

Board  Ft. 

Hinged  doors  (top)  . . . 

1 

I"xl0"x6' 

5 

Vertical  wall 

1 

I"xl0"x6' 

5 

Sloping  wall  

1 

I"xl2"x6' 

6 

Bottom  

1 

l"x  8"x6' 

4 

Trough  wall  

1 

l"x  4"x6' 

2 

Deflection  boards 

1 

l"x  4"x6' 

2 

Ends  

1 

l"x  6"xl6' 

8 

Partitions 

Four  l^-inch  hinges. 

1 

l"x  8"xl0' 

Ms 

22 


Bill  of  Material  for  8'x8'  Portable  Poultry  House 


Use  No.  Pieces  Dimensions  Board  Ft 

Skids  4 4"x4"x8'  42  % 

Plates  2 2"x4"x8'  10  % 

Sills  4 2"x4"x8'  21 1/3 

Studding  1 16'] 

Studding  2 10'  2"x4"  48 

Studding  3 12'  J 

Side  sheathing 1"  shiplap  (8")  144 

Outside  cleats  115'  of  y2"x 3"  dressed 

Flooring  1"  D.  and  M.  (4")  64 

Rafters  4 • 2"x4"xl0'  26  % 

Roof  sheathing 1"  shiplap  (8")  90 

Facia  boards  38'  l"x4"  (dressed)  12  % 

1 I"xl2"xl6'  (dressed)  { 

2 l"x  6"xl0'  (dressed)  j 

Dropping  boards 1"  shiplap  (6")  16 

Braces 2 2"x4"x8'  10?3 

Roost  1 2"x4"x8'  5 % 

Door  1 I*4"x6"xl6'  dressed  16 

Door  trim 1 I"x4"xl6'  5 % 

Paper — 260  square  feet. 

Window — 1 — 1'  8"x2'  11" — 6 light  single  sash — milled. 

Wire  mesh,  5 square  feet. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


23 


CROSS  SECT! OH 


FIG.  14. — A GOOD  PLAN  FOR  AN  8x8'  COLONY  HOUSE 
Even  small  lots  of  chickens  should  be  given  proper  housing. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


Bill  of  Material  for  12'x16'  Poultry  House 


(Fig.  15) 


Use  No. 

Pieces 

Dimensions 

Board  Ft. 

Studding  

. 9 

2"x4"xl2' 

72 

Studding  

. 6 

2"x4"xl8' 

72 

Rafters  

.'  7 

2"x4"xl6' 

Collar  beam 

. 5 

2"x4"xl2' 

40 

Plates  

. 8 

2"x4"xl6' 

851/3 

Plates  

. 6 

2"x4"xl0' 

40 

Roofing  

l"x8" 

284 

Siding  (outside)  

1"  shiplap  (8") 

360 

Siding  (inside)  

l"x6" 

370 

Corner  boards 

56'  of  l"x4"  dressed 

18  2/3 

Straw  loft 

l"x8" 

160 

Roosts 

. 2 

2"x4"xl6' 

211/3 

Dropping  boards  

l"x8" 

45 

Dropping  board  frames  . . . 

. 1 

2"x4"xl6' 

10  h 

Dropping  board  frames  . . . 

. 2 

2"x4"xl2' 

16 

Baffler  frames  

. 2 

I"x4"xl6' 

10  h 

Concrete — 83  cu.  ft.  floor  and  foundation. 

Windows — 4 — 2'  0"x4'  8" — 2 sash — 4 light — milled. 
Doors — 3 — 2'  2"x6'  4" — milled. 

Nests  and  feed  hopper  not  included. 


< 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


25 


FIG.  15.— POULTRY  HOUSE  SUITABLE  FOR  A TOWN  LOT 
A two-pen  house  allows  one  to  carry  a breeding  flock. 


26  Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


Bill  of  Lumber  for  Colony  House  8'x12' 

(Fig.  16) 

Use  No.  Pieces  Dimensions  Board  Ft. 

Studding 4 2"x4"xl0'  26 

Studding 4 2"x4"xl4'  37 

Studding 3 2"x4"xl2'  24 

Rafters  8 2"x4"xl0'  53^ 

Roofing  I"x8"  136  sq.ft. 

Plates  8 2"x4"xl2'  64 

Plates  3 2"x4"xl6'  32 

T.  & G.  Flooring 

Floor  I"x4"  96  sq.ft. 

Corner  boards 2 I"x4"xl6'  10  % 

Corner  boards 2 I"x4"xl2'  8 

Facia  boards*  2 I"x6"xl4'  14 

56  sq.  ' cloth  for  screen 

Facia  boards 2 I"x6"xl4'  10 

Facia  boards 2 I"xl0"xl4'  23  ^ 

Facia  boards 2 I"xl0"x20'  16  ^3 

Matched  siding 

Siding  I"x6"  276  sq.  ft. 

Windows — 2 — 2'  4"x4'  0"— 2 sash — 6 light — milled. 

Door — 1 — 2'  6"x6'  0"  milled.  Does  not  include  skids. 

*May  be  omitted  if  open  facia  are  desired. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


27 


FIG.  16. — AN  8x12'  COLONY  HOUSE 

Ev^ry  farm  should  have  a house  of  this  type  for  brooding  chicks  or 
for  special  mating  flocks. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


Bill  of  Material  for  Wisconsin  Poultry  House  20'x20' 
(Pigs.  17A,  17B) 


Use  No.  Pieces  Dimensions  Board  Feet 

Studding  16  2"x4"xl4'  149 1/3  * 

Studding  3 2"x4"xl8'  36 

Brace 4 2"x8"xl0'  53 

Rafters  22  2"x4"xl2'  176 

Roof  boards I"x8"  576  sq.  ft. 

Siding  I"x6"  523  sq.  ft. 

Windows  9 6 light  8"xl0"  sash. 

Bafflers  3 I"x4"xl0'  10 

Straw  loft  5 2"x4"xl0'  33  }3 

Straw  loft  12  I"x8"xl0'  80 

Roosts  4 2"x4"x20'  53  }3 

Dropping  boards  I"x8"  100  sq.  ft. 

Dropping  boards  2"x4"xl2'  24 


Concrete,  245  cubic  feet. 

Nests,  feeder  and  water  stand  not  included. 

Sand  bath  cover,  4 sashes — 8 light  6"x6"  with  frame  9'x2'. 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


29 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  336 


20-0" H 

* 

* 

* 

9 

" 

• 

y'Feed  hopper 

Nests  -12"J4\  14"-4deep  y 
with  Eroody  coop  above 

■■ 

s5 tat  wafer- stand 

(\Screen  on  inside  of  bafflers? 

— 1» 
B 

J 

- 

rjTj 

n~ 

\ 

FLOOR  PLAN 


SOUTH  ELEVATION 


FIG.  17B. — ELEVATION  AND  FLOOR 
A good  plan  for  a 100-unit  house 


Farm  Poultry  Buildings 


31 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
P.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller.  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Gratil,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 

Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 
B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 
R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 


H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Carver,  Genetics 

A.  L.  DuRant,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  W.  Heal,  Animal  Husbandry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  D.  Samuels,  Soils 

E.  G.  Sci-imidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Stevens,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  N.  Stroman,  Genetics 

M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 
J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


October,  1921 


GRICULTURAt  .EXPERIMENT  STA 
''UNIVERSITY' m WISCONSIN 
mfc:*-.'  -MADISON 


DIGEST 

The  Havana  seed  or  Spanish  type  is  best  suited  to  Wisconsin,  which 
is  known  in  the  tobacco  industry  as  a cigar-binder  growing  district. 

Page  5. 

The  best  quality  of  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  sandy  loam  or  prairie 
loam  soils.  The  newer  soils,  free  from  root-rot,  ordinarily  give  the 
best  yields.  Page  7. 

Rotation  and  the  use  of  resistant  strains  help  to  control  root  rot. 


Pages  10,  17. 

Steaming  the  seed  beds  makes  plant  growing  easy.  Page  14. 

Sowing  the  seed  too  thickly  in  the  seed  beds  is  the  most  common 
fault  among  Wisconsin  growers.  Page  15. 

More  commercial  fertilizers  can  be  used  with  profit  by  Wisconsin 
growers  on  their  new  tobacco  fields.  Fertilizers  are  often  wasted,  how- 
ever, on  tobacco-sick  soils.  Page  18. 

Late  planting  is  often  more  desirable  if  tobacco  must  be  planted  on 
the  old  fields.  Page  20. 

On  new  tobacco  land,  early  planting  usually  gives  the  best  results  in 
yield  and  in  quality.  Page  20. 


The  essentials  for  successful  curing  are:  Favorable  weather  condi- 

tions, a properly  built  shed  and  an  understanding  of  how  to  manage 
the  process.  The  early  crops  are  most  likely  to  benefit  from  favorable 
weather  conditions.  . Page  28. 

Neatness  and  uniformity  of  the  bundles  and  careful  attention  to 
grading  will  increase  the  value  of  the  crop  when  it  is  put  on  the 
market.  Page  32. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 

James  Johnson  and  C.  M.  Slagg 

The  tobacco  crop  is  one  of  the  six  crops  standing  highest  in  farm 
value  in  Wisconsin,  and  is  exceeded  only  by  potatoes  as  a “spec- 
ial” or  “cash”  crop.  A twenty-year  average  for  this  state  in  round 
numbers  shows  an  acreage  of  43,000,  a production  of  52,000,000 
pounds  with  a value  of  over  $6,000,000.  High  prices  occasioned 
by  war  conditions  brought  the  value  of  the  1918  crop  up  close  to 
$20,000,000  and  stimulated  production  but  prices  and  acreage  are 
again  approaching  normal. 

Yield  and  Profits 

The  acre  yield  may  normally  vary  between  1,000  and  2,000 
pounds  of  cured  leaf.  The  average  yield  for  the  state  in  any  one 
year,  however,  is  said  to  vary  from  900  pounds  in  poor  years  like 
1915  to  1,400  pounds  in  good  years,  for  instance  1900  or  1916. 
The  average  over  a period  of  years  is  about  1,250  pounds. 

The  price  per  pound  has  varied  widely  the  last  few  years  owing 
to  abnormal  conditions.  Prices  of  from  7 to  42  cents  were,  in  fact, 
reported  for  the  1920  crop.  Normally,  a range  of  from  10  to  20 
cents  a pound  may  be  expected  as  representing  the  variation  in 
market  value  of  the  leaf  on  the  farm.  The  average  price  paid  for 
the  Wisconsin  crop  over  a twenty-year  period  is  between  11  and 
12  cents. 

The  returns  per  acre  will  ordinarily  range  between  $125  and 
$250.  The  actual  profit  naturally  will  vary  greatly  owing  to  an- 
nual and  individual  differences  in  cost  of  production.  A good 
crop  should  bring  on  the  average,  however,  a net  profit  of  about 
$100  per  acre  in  return  for  the  risk  involved  and  the  managerial 
responsibility  carried. 

Cost  of  Production 

The  actual  cost  of  production,  based  on  interest  on  investment 
in  land,  curing  shed,  tools  and  other  equipment,  fertilizers  and 
supplies,  horse  work,  and  labor  has  been  variously  estimated  at 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


from  $50  to  $100  an  acre  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  cost  of 
the  1918-1920  crops  were,  of  course,  relatively  higher.  But  the 
experienced  grower  who  uses  good  judgment  can  increase  his 
profits  by  lowering  cost  of  production.  To  do  this,  however,  the 
grower  must  consider  the  cost  per  pound  rather  than  the  cost  per 
acre  and  this  may  sometimes  involve  increased  rather  than  re- 
trenched expenditures  on  the  acre  basis. 


Table  1. — Acreage  of  Leading  Wisconsin  Tobacco  Counties,  1920. 


County 

Acreage  County 

Acreage 

T>anp 

19,980  Trpmppalpan 

1,042 
732 
617 
603 
■ 2,884 

Vernon 

9,539  Jackson  

Rnnt 

7,705  Jefferson  

Columbia 

3,299  Dunn 

Crawford  

2,449  Other  counties  _ 

Monroe  - 

1,218 

Total  

50,068 

Table  2. — Average  Annual  Acreage,  Production  and  Value  of  Tobacco 
in  Wisconsin  by  Decades.  1860-1920. 


Acreage 

Decade 

Production 

pounds 

Average 
farm  value 

1860-1870  391 

1870-1880  I 4,125 

1880-1890  16,227 

1890-1900  26,988 

1900-1910  — 40,280 

1910-1920  45,225  | 

312,800 

4,079,625 

15,464,331 

30,010,656 

48,779,080 

53,229,885 

$ 46,294 

330,450 
1,623,754 
2,280,809 
4,195,000 
8,410,312 

Equipment  Necessary 


In  addition  to  horses,  wagons,  plow,  disc,  harrow,  and  culti- 
vators the  tobacco  grower  needs  considerable  special  equipment 
of  which  the  curing  shed  is  the  most  expensive.  Tobacco  lath, 
transplanting  machine,  seed-bed  frames  and  sheeting  or  canvas 
covers,  tobacco  axes,  spears,  hauling  rack,  packing  box,  packing 
paper  and  twine,  and  other  minor  equipment  is  necessary.  The 
best  growers  are  continually  selecting  and  improving  the  equip- 
ment, and  keeping  it  in  proper  repair,  thereby  helping  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  production. 

Skilled  Labor 

Skilled  labor  is  the  most  essential  asset  where  a considerable 
acreage  is  grown.  Such  labor  is  especially  valuable  during  the 
planting  and  harvesting  season  where  speed  and  care  are  required 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


5 


in  handling  the  crop.  Experienced  labor  is  usually  worth  a con- 
siderably higher  wage  than  inexperienced  labor.  Where  a large 
acreage  of  tobacco  is  handled,  however,  considerable  unskilled 
labor  may  be  used  with  advantage  at  a lower  wage. 


FIG.  1.— A DESIRABLE  TYPE 

This  type,  Connecticut  Havana  No.  38,  developed  by  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station,  illustrates  many  of  the  desirable  points  of  form  or 
habit  of  growth  for  Wisconsin  tobacco.  (Compare  with  Fig.  2.) 

Type  of  Tobacco  Grown 

Fully  ten  or  twelve  different  types  (distinct  varieties)  of  to- 
bacco are  grown  in  the  United  States  in  as  many,  or  more,  dis- 
tricts or  sections.  These  tobaccos  are  used  by  the  trade  for  dif- 
ferent purposes.  There  is  a distinct  localization  or  specialization, 
therefore,  in  regard  to  the  type  grown  in  each  district;  and  the 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


prices  of  cured  leaf  depend  largely  upon  the  relative  supply 
and  demand  and  upon  the  quality  of  the  type  produced  in  each 
section.  For  this  reason,  efforts  to  market  new  types  in  a section, 
or  to  market  tobacco  outside  the  regular  growing  sections  usually 
result  in  failure. 


FIG.  2.— AN  UNDESIRABLE  TYPE 


Though  this  type  has  a fairly  good  leaf  it  is  undesirable  on  account 
of  its  habit  of  growth.  The  leaves  are  too  far  apart  and  have  a ten- 
dency to  droop. 

The  Wisconsin  tobacco  district  is  recognized  as  a cigar-binder 
growing  region  because  the  varieties  grown  and  the  quality  pro- 
duced are  satisfactory  for  that  purpose.  Cigar-binder  tobacco 
must  be  relatively  sound  and  of  good  and  uniform  quality,  but  a 
large  part  of  the  leaf  produced  in  Wisconsin  is  not  suitable  for 
that  purpose,  so  that  there  is  still  a large  opportunity  for  general 
improvement  of  the  grade  of  tobacco  produced  in  this  state. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


7 


BAYFIELD 


DOUGLAS 


ASHLAND 


WASHBURN 


SAWYER 


'BURNETT 


FLORENCE 


BARRON 


TAYLOR 


CHIPPEWA  I 


(pierce 


KEWAUNEE 


OUTAGAMIE 


.;aleau 


JACKSON 


WAUSHARA 


JUNEAU 


'ADAMS 


-A  CROSSE 


MARQUETTE I GREEN 
) LAKE 


FONO  OU  LAC| 


jOLUM^IA 


DODGE 


JEFFERSON 


Growing  Areas 

The  tobacco  sections  in  Wisconsin  are  usually  classified  by  the 
trade  as  “southern”  and  “northern”.  The  southern  area  lies 
principally  in  Dane,  Rock  and  Columbia  Counties.  The  northern 
area  lies  principally  in  Vernon  and  Crawford  Counties,  but  also 


FIG.  3.— WISCONSIN  GROWS  50,000  ACRES  OF  TOBACCO 
This  map  shows  the  leading-  tobacco  areas  in  Wisconsin.  Each  dot 
represents  50  acres  of  tobacco. 

includes  parts  of  the  bordering  counties  and  two  smaller  areas 
north  of  this  primarily  in  Trempealeau  and  Chippewa  Counties. 

The  Best  Soils 

The  finest  quality  of  tobacco  is  usually  grown  on  the  sandy 
loam  soils  of  Wisconsin,  when  adequately  fertilized.  Such  soils 
are  quite  typical  of  Vernon  and  Crawford  Counties.  In  the 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


“southern”  district,  tobacco  is  grown  on  light  clay  loam  and  on 
black  prairie  loams.  These  soils  are  usually  higher  in  natural 
fertility  and  produce  a larger  yield  per  acre,  but  frequently  a 
higher  percentage  of  darker  and  heavier  leaf.  New  soils  of  this 
type,  however,  or  soils  properly  managed  so  as  to  keep  up  the 
vegetable  matter,  produce  tobacco  of  very  desirable  quality. 

The  growing  of  tobacco  should  not  be  attempted  upon  heavy 
clays,  or  on  muck  or  peat  soils  because  they  will  not  ordinarily 
produce  a good  quality  of  leaf. 

What  is  Quality? 

Quality  in  tobacco  is  frequently  an  indefinite  and  sometimes 
an  obscure  term.  Its  meaning  varies  with  different  manufacturers 
and  with  different  types  of  tobacco,  and  sometimes  changes  as  the 
“fashion”  of  the  types  desired  change.  Generally  speaking,  a 
cigar-binder  leaf  should  have  the  desirable  qualities  of  a cigar 
wrapper  leaf  but  does  not  need  them  in  so  marked  a degree. 

First,  of  course,  the  leaf  must  be  sound  and  have  sufficient  size 
to  permit  the  cutting  of  at  least  one  binder  from  each  side  of  the 
leaf.  It  is  very  important  that  the  leaf  have  good  “burn”,  but  this 
is  usually  taken  for  granted  with  Wisconsin  tobacco  if  the  general 
appearance  is  desirable.  The  color  of  the  leaf  (including  unifor- 
mity of  color),  the  texture  (grain  and  relative  coarseness  of  the 
leaf  structure)  and  the  body  or  thickness  of  the  leaf,  are  of  pri- 
mary importance.  The  size  of  the  veins,  elasticity,  flavor,  aroma, 
and  style  are  also  to  be  considered. 

The  buyers  of  binder  leaf  ordinarily  prefer  a medium-sized 
leaf  (22-24  inches  long)  of  a light  brown  uniform  color,  close 
grained,  of  medium  body,  and  good  elasticity. 

TOBACCO  SEED 

A number  of  so-called  varieties  of  tobacco  are  grown  commer- 
cially in  Wisconsin.  Many  of  these,  although  under  different 
names,  are  practically  identical  and  make  up  what  properly  may 
be  called  the  Havana  Seed  or  Spanish  type.  In  some  cases  fairly 
marked  differences  in  yield  and  appearance  of  the  plants  are  ob- 
servable, and  in  other  cases  the  variety  name  has  been  so  well  es- 
tablished as  to  warrant  its  continued  use.  Of  the  Havana  seed 
types,  the  Connecticut  Havana,  Comstock  Spanish  and  Connecti- 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


9 


cut  Havana  No.  38  varieties  are  regarded  as  standard  for  this 
type. 

Another  group  of  varieties  which  is  usually  classed  as  “Big- 
Seed”  are  grown,  but  the  classification  of  these  is  not  in  all  cases 


FIG.  4.— BAGGING  THE  SEED  HEAD  PREVENTS  CROSSING 
Where  two  or  more  strains  of  tobacco  are  grown  close  together  this 

method  is  effective. 

distinct,  and  varieties  which  cannot  be  classed  in  either  of  these 
types  can  be  found.  “Big-Seed”  types  usually  have  a larger  leaf, 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


and  take  on  a more  distinct  drooping  habit  of  growth  than  the 
Havana  Seed  types.  On  the  whole  they  are  not  considered  so  de- 
sirable for  binder  purposes  as  Havana  Seed  although  they  usually 
give  a larger  yield  per  acre.  This  has  been  found  in  many  cases 
to  be  due  as  much  to  greater  resistance  to  root-rot*  as  to  an  in- 


FIG.  5.— PRODUCING  SEED  FOR  FARMERS 
A seed  plot  at  the  Experiment  Station  in  which  half  of  the  plants  have 
been  selected  for  seed  and  bagged. 


herent  power  to  give  greater  yield.  Consequently,  on  new  ground 
free  from  root-rot  there  is  really  no  good  reason  for  growing 
these  types. 

The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  in  recent  years  has  at- 
tempted to  obtain  a strain  of  tobacco,  with  a habit  of  growth  and 
quality  similar  to  Havana  Seed  but  with  marked  resistance  to  root 
rot.  It  has  not  as  yet  entirely  succeeded,  but  a strain  distributed 
by  the  Experiment  Station  as  “Resistant  Cigar  Binder  Seed”  has 
been  widely  grown  and  on  the  whole  very  favorably  received. 
Further  improvement  along  this  line  is  anticipated. 

Purchasing  Seed 

Several  tobacco  growers  and  dealers  in  Wisconsin  grow  and 
sell  tobacco  seed.  Such  seed  is  reliable  in  most  instances  as  to 
variety  name  and  germinating  capacity.  Growers  who  sell  seed 
only  occasionally  may  not  always  furnish  a product  so  reliable 
as  to  variety  name  or  germination.  A large  amount  of  seed  is 
exchanged  and  sold,  of  course,  between  individuals  personally 


*See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin  11 

acquainted,  or  through  recommendations  from  buyers.  Tobacco 
seed  is  a very  small  expense  in  connection  with  growing  the  crop, 
since  it  usually  sells  for  50  cents  an  ounce,  an  amount  sufficient 
for  from  two  to  four  acres. 


FIG.  6. — GOOD  PLANT  BEDS  ARE  IMPORTANT 
To  secure  plenty  of  strong-,  healthy  plants  on  time  use  g-ood  seed, 
steam  the  soil,  sow  the  seed  thinly  and  do  not  let  the  beds  dry  out  when 
the  plants  are  young. 

Selecting  Seed 

Many  growers  select  their  own  seed,  a good  practice  when  a 
desirable  type  has  been  obtained.  Where  more  than  one  strain  of 
tobacco  is  grown  in  close  proximity,  however,  mixing  is  likely  to 
result  due  to  crossing  through  the  flowers.  This  can  be  prevented 
by  “bagging”  the  seed  heads.  This  is  done  by  inverting  a twelve- 
pound  size  manila  paper  bag  over  the  flower  head  as  soon  as  it 
is  strong  enough  to  support  the  bag.  First  remove  all  open  flowers 
or  pods  which  may  have  formed.  The  seed  plants  saved  should 
be  of  uniform  type;  and  if  plants  are  saved  which  are  thought 
to  be  of  different  strains,  the  seed  should  be  saved  separately.  If 
a “pure  strain”  of  seed  is  being  used,  variation  should  not  occur 
and  the  likelihood  of  any  improvement  being  made  by  selection  is 
very  small.  Careful  attention  to  selection  will  help  to  keep  the 
seed  up  to  the  original  standard  by  eliminating  any  undesirable 
types  which  may  creep  in. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


Care  of  Seed  Pods 

When  the  seed  pods  are  practically  all  ripe  they  can  be  picked 
off  or  the  entire  seed  head  cut  off.  The  seed  heads  or  pods  should 
be  stored  in  a dry  place  in  order  to  dry  out  thoroughly  before  being 
threshed.  It  is  important  to  store  them  in  such  a way  that  mice 
cannot  get  at  them,  since  they  feed  very  greedily  on  tobacco  seed. 

Seed  Cleaning 

Tobacco  seed  is  usually  threshed  out  of  the  pods  by  hand 
and  separated  from  the  pods  and  chaff  by  screening.  The  dust, 
small  chaff  and  light  seed  may  be  blown  out  by  means  of  an  air 
current.  The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  has  developed  a 
special  machine  for  this  purpose  which  permits  large  quantities 
of  seed  to  be  uniformly  cleaned  with  fair  rapidity.  This  seed 
cleaning  device  has  been  available  to  seed  growers  for  several 
years ; and  hundreds  of  pounds  of  seed  are  cleaned  annually.  This 
method  eliminates  the  light  poor  seed  and  raises  the  germination 
percentage. 

Seed  Testing 

Much  uncertainty  and  difficulty  can  be  avoided  by  testing  to- 
bacco seed  previous  to  sowing.  The  germination  of  tobacco  seed 
varies  greatly  with  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown  and 
ranges  commonly  between  50  and  100  per  cent.  The  growers’ 
uncertainty  as  to  the  germinating  power  of  the  seed  is  a common 
reason  for  thick  sowing,  which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  draw- 
backs to  the  production  of  good  plants  in  Wisconsin.  When  buy- 
ing seed,  insist  on  having  its  germinating  test ; and  test  your  own 
seed  or  send  it  to  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  to  be  tested 
for  you.  A simple  way  to  test  tobacco  seed  is  to  place  a mois- 
tened— not  too  wet — blotter  or  felt  cloth  on  a dinner  plate.  Take 
a small  sample,  preferably  100  seeds,  and  scatter  them  over  this 
moist  surface;  then  cover  with  a pane  of  glass  or  dish  and  set  the 
plate  away  in  a place  a little  above  room  temperature,  (about  75- 
80°  F.).  Wet  the  blotter  occasionally  if  needed  so  the  seeds  will 
not  dry  out.  It  is  well  to  start  two  or  three  tests  at  a time  to  pro- 
vide a check  on  results.  After  five  to  ten  days  all  the  living  seeds 
should  have  sprouted  and  the  percentage  off  germination  may  be 
found. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


13 


Sprouting  Seed  for  Sowing 

Practically  all  tobacco  seed  in  Wisconsin  is  sprouted  indoors 
before  sowing.  This  is  usually  done  in  one  of  two  ways:  (1)  by 
mixing  the  seed  with  moist,  finely  ground,  rotted  wood  (punk)  or 
sawdust  or  (2)  by  keeping  the  pure  seed  moist  but  not  wet  between 
heavy  cloth.  The  sprouting  seed  is  usually  kept  at  ordinary  room 
temperature  and  should  not  be  kept  too  hot.  If  the  seed  is  ger- 
minating too  fast  it  can  be  held  back  by  placing  it  in  a cooler 
room.  The  seed  should  be  stirred  occasionally  to  allow  air  to 
get  into  it  and  to  permit  uniform  sprouting. 

Sowing  Dry  Seed 

In  most  tobacco  districts  outside  Wisconsin,  tobacco  seed  is 
sown  in  the  dry  or  unsprouted  condition.  This  has  some  distinct 
advantages,  one  being  that  the  seed  can  be  sowed  at  any  time  that 
the  seed  beds  are  ready.  Tobacco  seed  is  frequently  spoiled  in 
the  sprouting  process  indoors  due  to  unfavorable  conditions, 
whereas  under  normal  seed  bed  conditions  the  seed  will  merely 
remain  dormant  until  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  ger- 
mination. Sprouted  seed  will  have  a few  days  start  on  the  un- 
sprouted seed  in  the  seed  b£ds,  although  this  advantage  almost 
disappears  toward  transplanting  time.  At  the  Wisconsin  Exper- 
iment Station  only  dry  seed  has  been  sown  for  the  last  six  or  seven 
years  with  good  success.  For  the  present  we  recommend  sowing 
dry  seed  on  sterilized  beds  if  the  sowing  is  done  before  April  25. 
For  unsterilized  beds,  or  for  later  sowing,  sprouted  seed  may  have 
some  advantages,  in  getting  a start  on  the  weeds  and  in  produc- 
ing earlier  plants. 

THE  SEED  BEDS 

The  seed  beds  should  be  located  in  a sunny  and  warm  place, 
preferably  on  a southern  slope  or  where  otherwise  protected  on 
the  north.  The  soil  should  be  loose  and  not  have  a tendency 
to  bake.  A very  fertile  soil  is  desirable — either  sandy  or  else 
liberally  supplied  with  vegetable  matter.  On  account  of  the  dan- 
ger from  root  rot,  avoid  using  an  old  tobacco  field  for  seed  beds. 
If  the  soil  is  not  to  be  steamed,  avoid  places  which  are  likely  to 
be  very  weedy.  Pasture  sod  properly  handled  makes  good  seed 
beds  and  is  less  weedy.  If  possible  the  beds  should  be  located 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


convenient  to  a water  supply.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  change 
the  location  of  the  seed  beds  every  two  or  three  years  even  if  they 
are  steamed  to  reduce  danger  from  root  rot. 

Preparing  the  Seed  Beds 

Wisconsin  tobacco  growers  could  ordinarily  use  more  well- 
rotted  manure  on  their  seed  beds  than  they  are  now  doing.  This 
would  loosen  the  soil  and  increase  the  fertility.  Manure  applied 
in  the  fall  and  plowed  under,  followed  by  another  spring  appli- 
cation before  plowing,  may  be  used  with  profit.  If  commercial 
fertilizers  are  used  they  should  be  applied  as  a top  dressing  before 
the  final  preparation  of  the  soil.  About  5-10  pounds  of  a complete 
fertilizer  can  be  used  for  each'  100  square  feet.  Nitrate  of  soda, 
if  needed,  can  best  be  applied  in  solution  after  the  plants  are  up. 
The  soil  should  be  worked  into  a fine  tilth.  The  beds  should  be 
slightly  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides  and  as  smooth  as 
possible.  If  the  beds  are  to  be  steamed  it  should  be  done  after 
the  soil  is  practically  fitted  for  sowing. 

Seed  Bed  Frames 

The  tobacco  bed  frames  are  usually  a little  less  than  6 feet 
wide,  and  are  made  of  16-foot  boards  6 or  8 inches  wide,  over 
which  the  tobacco  bed  sheeting  or  “canvas”  is  stretched.  This  is 
preferably  held  up  in  the  center  by  a galvanized  iron  wire  running 
lengthwise  of  the  bed  about  two  or  three  inches  above  the  level 
of  the  frame  boards.  Many  growers  prepare  a permanent  frame, 
12  to  16  feet  long  and  six  feet  wide;  and  the  entire  frame  is 
removed  when  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  covering.  These  have 
the  advantage  of  always  being  ready  but  require  more  lumber  and 
more  room  for  storage.  Some  growers  use  covers  without  frames 
and  others  do  not  use  covers  at  all.  These  methods  are  not  rec- 
ommended for  growers  who  have  not  had  experience  in  growing 
plants  in  this  way. 

Steaming  the  Seed  Beds 

It  is  now  well  recognized  in  Wisconsin  that  steaming  tobacco 
beds  is  profitable  and  also  an  assurance  that  good  plants  will  be 
produced.  The  main  advantages  of  steaming  are  that  the  weed 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


15 


seeds  are  killed,  seed  bed  diseases  are  checked  and  earlier  and 
more  vigorous  plants  are  produced.*  The  seed  can  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  soil  is  cooled  or  the  soil  can  be  steamed  several  weeks 
previous  to  sowing the  latter  is  preferable  in  some  respects. 

Time  of  Sowing  the  Seed 

In  Wisconsin  the  seed  is  usually  sown  between  April  15  and 
May  1,  although  on  steamed  beds  seed  may  be  sown  as  late  as  May 
7 with  fair  certainty  of  having  plants  for  transplanting  by  June  20 
to  30. 

Methods  of  Sowing 

Where  seed  is  sprouted  in  rotted  wood  or  sawdust  it  is  suffic- 
iently diluted  with  this  material  to  be  sown  as  soon  as  it  is  sprouted 
and  the  beds  are  ready.  When  the  pure  seed  is  sprouted  it  is 
usually  sown  (when  just  showing  the  sprouts)  with  water  in  a 
sprinkling  can.  The  holes  in  the  rose  should  be  large  enough  to 
permit  the  seed  to  pass  through  and  the  seed  should  be  kept  sus- 
pended in  the  water  by  frequent  stirring  or  shaking.  This  method 
when  properly  followed  permits  of  quite  uniform  sowing.  Un- 
sprouted seed  can  be  sown  in  the  same  way  or  by  diluting  it  with 
meal,  ashes,  lime,  or  similar  material.  The  seed  should  be  raked 
in  lightly  after  sowing,  and  in  some  cases  the  soil  is  packed  with 
a roller  or  with  a board  although  this  is  usually  not  necessary 
where  the  beds  are  watered  regularly. 

Thickness  of  Sowing 

The  most  common  mistake  made  in  sowing  seed  beds  in  Wis- 
consin is  too  thick  sowing.  One  ounce  contains  about  350,000 
seeds,  which  would  furnish  enough  plants  for  from  35  to  50 
acres  of  tobacco  if  they  all  grew  vigorously  and  it  were  possible 
to  use  every  plant.  Too  thick  sowing  tends  to  produce  spindly 
and  weak  plants,  and  seed  bed  diseases  are  more  likely  to  be  prev- 
alent. Many  Wisconsin  growers  sow  one  ounce  of  seed  on  two 
to  four  rods  of  bed  six  feet  wide  (about  200-400  square  feet). 
Better  results  would  be  secured  by  using  this  amount  of  seed  on 
six  to  eight  rods  of  bed,  or  even  on  eight  to  ten  rods  of  bed  where 
the  seed  is  known  to  germinate  above  90  per  cent  and  where 
steamed  soil  is  used. 


•See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


Watering 

It  is  important  to  watch  the  beds  daily  during  dry  weather 
when  the  plants  are  very  small,  since  severe  drying  (which  is  more 
likely  to  occur  on  steamed  than  on  unsteamed  soil)  is  likely  to  kill 
out  a number  of  the  seedlings.  After  the  plants  are  fairly  well 
rooted,  drying  even  to  the  stage  of  slight  wilting  may  do  no  injury. 
At  this  time  watering  should  be  thorough  rather  than  frequent, 
which  will  favor  the  development  of  a good  root  system. 

Use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda 

Where  tobacco  plants  are  making  a slow  growth,  or  show  a 
tendency  to  yellow  in  the  seed  bed,  they  can  ordinarily  be  im- 
proved by  drenching  the  soil  with  nitrate  of  soda  solution,  at  the 
rate  of  2 to  3 pounds  of  the  nitrate  to  one  barrel  (50  gallons)  of 
water.  This  solution  should  be  liberally  applied  so  as  to  get  down 
into  the  soil  for  two  or  more  inches.  It  is  advisable  to  sprinkle 
lightly  with  pure  water  following  the  application.  This  washes 
the  solution  off  the  leaves.  Two  applications  a few  days  apart 
will  usually  be  sufficient. 

Diseases  and  Insects 

Bed-rot,  or  damping-off,  and  root-rot  sometimes  cause  consid- 
erable injury  in  the  seed  beds.  Occasionally  fleas  cause  some 
damage.  Soil  steaming  or  the  use  of  soil  free  from  these  troubles 
are  the  only  effective  and  practical  ways  of  prevention.  Drying 
the  beds  will  help  to  check  bed-rot;  and  air-slaked  lime  is  some- 
times used  to  discourage  the  fleas.* 

Hardening-off  the  Plants 

Tobacco  plants  grown  under  cloth  are  quite  tender,  are  more 
likely  to  be  broken  in  pulling  or  in  transplanting,  and  are  also  in 
more  danger  of  being  burned  by  the  sun  if  transplanted  on  a hot, 
dry  day  than  are  plants  accustomed  to  full  sunlight.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  a good  plan  to  remove  the  covers,  at  least  during  the  day 
time,  for  a few  days  before  transplanting  in  order  to  “harden-off” 
the  plants.  If  the  plants  are  growing  too  rapidly  and  the  fields 


•See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


17 


are  not  ready  for  transplanting  the  cloth  can  be  left  off  per- 
manently after  about  June  1,  although  it  is  a good  plan  to  replace 
it  when  heavy  storms  are  likely  to  occur. 

Pulling  the  Plants 

Tobacco  plants  should  preferably  be  pulled  on  the  same  day 
they  are  set  although  they  will  keep  fairly  well  for  two  or  three 
days  if  pulled  with  dry  leaves  and  stored  in  an  upright  position 
in  a cool  place. 

Water  the  beds  thoroughly  some  time  previous  to  pulling  so  that 
the  soil  adhering  to  the  roots  will  not  be  sticky  and  interfere  with 
dropping  the  plants  on  the  machine.  The  plants  should  prefer- 
ably be  pulled  from  the  soil  by  grasping  the  leaves.  Permanent 
injury  may  be  done  to  the  stem  by  pressing  it  too  tightly  between 
the  fingers  in  pulling.  Plants  showing  signs  of  disease  on  the 
leaves,  stems  or  roots  should  preferably  be  discarded  as  should 
all  small  spindly  plants  and  those  excessively  large.  Plants  uni- 
form in  size,  with  a medium  long,  straight  stem,  a fair-sized  root 
system  and  detached  from  other  plants  are  best  for  good  setting 
by  machine.  Two  or  more  pullings  can  be  made  from  each  bed, 
but  the  third  and  succeeding  pullings  are  likely  to  yield  crooked 
and  inferior  plants. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FIELD 

The  main  points  to  consider  in  selecting  the  soil  for  the  tobacco 
field  are  its  adaptability  to  the  tobacco  plant,  its  natural  fertility, 
and  its  freedom  from  the  root-rot  disease.  The  best  tobacco  soils 
are  relatively  loose,  containing  considerable  sand  and  humus,  and 
have  good  drainage.  The  soil  must  be  fairly  fertile  and  if  it  is 
not,  liberal  applications  of  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  should 
be  used.  Soils  which  have  grown  three  or  more  crops  of  tobacco 
are  likely  to  have  considerable  root-rot  in  them,  and  unless  disease 
resistant  varieties  are  grown  it  is  usually  preferable  to  grow  the 
crop  on  new  tobacco  ground  with  less  fertility  than  to  take  chances 
on  more  fertile  “tobacco  sick”  soils. 

Crop  Rotation  with  Tobacco 

Tobacco  growers  are  coming  more  and  more  to  use  a regular 
system  of  rotation  for  their  tobacco  fields.  This  helps  to  control 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


root-rot  in  addition  to  its  other  advantages.  A model  rotation  in 
Wisconsin  would  be  to  grow  tobacco  three  years  in  succession  on 
the  one  field.  On  the  other  “tobacco  field”  during  this  time  grow 
a crop  of  corn  followed  by  barley  and  clover.  On  some  soils  a 
four-year  rotation — sowing  timothy  with  clover — would  probably 
be  more  satisfactory.  The  fourth  year  would  then  produce  a crop 
of  clover  and  timothy — the  second  crop  of  which  preferably 
should  be  plowed  under  in  the  late  fall.  Oats  may  be  substituted 
for  barley  on  poorer  soils,  though  there  is  much  danger  of  con- 
siderable lodging  in  wet  seasons. 

Fertilizing  the  Tobacco  Field 

Barnyard  manure,  at  the  rate  of  about  twenty  tons  to  the  acre, 
is  commonly  applied  to  tobacco  fields  in  Wisconsin.  In  order  to 
give  results  with  the  succeeding  crop  this  should  preferably  be 
applied  in  the  fall,  or  be  well  rotted  if  applied  in  the  spring. 

Commercial  fertilizers  can  profitably  be  used  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  barnyard  manure  on  most  Wisconsin  tobacco  soils. 
Most  of  our  tobacco  soils  respond  to  fertilization  with  phosphate 
fertilizers ; and  this  element  can  profitably  be  applied  alone  or  in 
combination  with  barnyard  manure  at  the  rate  of  400-800  pounds 
per  acre  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphate.  On  soils  relatively  low  in 
fertility  it  is  safest  to  apply  a complete  fertilizer — that  is,  one 
containing  nitrogen,  phosphorous  and  potassium  in  the  proportion 
of  2-12-2,  or  a similar  formula.* 

Preparing  the  Field  for  Planting 

The  preparation  of  the  tobacco  soils  should  be  such  as  is  most 
conducive  to  perfect  tilth,  retention  of  moisture,  and  destruction 
of  weeds  and  insect  larvae.  Fall  plowing  should  be  practiced 
where  possible  on  sod  lands.  Late  spring  plowing  has  some  dis- 
advantages, and  in  seasons  of  drought  is  often  a serious  handicap 
to  the  crop.  Tobacco  soils  most  frequently  receive  no  cultivation 
whatever  during  ten  months  of  the  year.  The  soil,  being  devoid 
of  any  mulch  for  that  length  of  time,  is  in  a favorable  condition 
for  the  loss  of  water,  which  could  be  retained  in  part  for  the  use 
of  the  crop.  Working  the  land  early  in  the  spring  and  keeping 
a mulch  on  the  surface  until  planting  time  will  materially  aid  in 


•See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


19 


conserving  soil  moisture  and  in  helping  the  plants  to  make  a good 
start,  even  if  rain  does  not  fall  until  two  or  three  weeks  after 
setting. 

The  early  preparation  of  the  land  will  also  be  found  to  control 
the  major  portion  of  the  weeds  as  they  will  start  early  and  can 


FIG.  7. — CARE  IN  TRANSPLANTING  PAYS 
The  essentials  for  success  with  the  transplanting-  machine  are:  Good 
tilth  of  the  soil,  clean  plow  and  packers  on  the  machine,  two  careful 
droppers,  and  g-ood  plants  carefully  picked  from  the  seed  beds. 

be  killed  much  more  readily  before  than  after  setting  the  plants. 
Good  tilth  is  very  important  in  securing  a good  and  uniform  stand 
of  tobacco,  and  to  this  end  the  disk,  drag,  and  planker  must  be 
used  at  the  proper  time. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


A practice  which  should  be  discouraged  among  growers  is 
that  of  leaving  the  ground  rolled  or  planked  for  any  length  of 
time.  This  condition  aids  the  rapid  escape  of  moisture.  The 
roller  or  planker  is  used  to  compact  the  soil  and  bring  it  into 
fine  tilth,  but  should  be  followed  by  a light  harrowing. 

Transplanting  Into  the  Field 

Transplanting  is  done  in  Wisconsin  between  June  1 and  July  8. 
Usually  neither  the  early  nor  the  late  settings  give  the  best  re- 
sults. No  fixed  time  can  be  recommended  as  this  varies  with  the 
year,  and  the  time  the  plants  are  ready  for  transplanting.  June 
10  to  June  25,  however,  is  usually  conceded  to  bring  the  most  fav- 
orable results.  The  plants  are  set  with  a transplanting  machine. 
With  two  good  “droppers”  the  plants  can  be  set  very  much  more 
satisfactorily  than  by  hand  planting.  During  hot,  dry  weather, 
planting  should  preferably  be  done  only  in  the  afternoon  as  the 
plants  are  liable  to  “burn  out”.  Other  essentials  for  hot  weather 
planting  are  to  have  plants  well  “hardened-off”  to  the  sun,  stocky 
in  form,  and  set  well  up  to  the  bud.  A spindly  plant  set  with 
a portion  of  the  stem  above  the  ground  will  wilt  rapidly,  and  cause 
the  previously  shaded  stem  to  become  fully  exposed  to  the  sun’s 
rays.  The  injury  resulting  to  the  stem  will  usually  kill  the  plant 
whereas  the  burning  of  the  leaves  will  only  check  its  growth. 

The  planting  distance  in  Wisconsin  varies  from  32  to  38  inches 
between  the  rows,  and  18  to  24  inches  in  the  row.  The  closeness 
of  planting  should  be  determined  largely  by  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  and  the  type  of  tobacco  grown.  “Big  Seed”  types  on  fertile 
soil  are  very  difficult  to  work  and  frequently  become  very  ragged 
unless  the  plants  are  set  even  greater  distances  apart  than  those 
mentioned.  On  the  other  hand,  close  planting  tends  to  produce 
a leaf  of  better  texture  and  color.  It  is  partly  for  this  reason  that 
the  Havana  types  of  tobacco  give  the  most  satisfactory  quality, 
while  the  closer  planting  enables  practically  as  large  yields  to  be 
obtained. 

Plant  Old  Fields  Last 

Old  tobacco  fields  harbor  the  most  root-rot.  This  disease  is 
most  serious  in  cool  seasons  or  in  the  cooler  part  of  the  season, 
as  for  instance  in  June  and  early  July.  By  transplanting  old  fields 
late  the  crop  may  not  get  badly  stunted  before  the  warmer  weather 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


21 


of  July  and  August,  when  the  disease  may  be  checked.  Conse- 
quently it  is  advisable  where  possible  to  make  the  first  planting 
on  the  newer  tobacco  soils  where  root-rot  may  not  be  present, 
saving  the  old  fields  for  as  late  planting  as  is  possible  and  consis- 
tent with  the  time  required  for  the  crop  to  mature  properly. 


FIG.  8.— A GOOD  TOOL  FOR  REPLANTING 
With  a blade-like  “dibber”  such  as  this  replanting-  can  be  done  when 
the  soil  is  relatively  dry.  Select  strong  plants  with  some  moist  soil  at- 
tached to  the  roots.  Kick  away  the  dry  surface  soil  and  set  the  plant 
firmly  with  the  dibber.  A good  size  for  dibber  blade  is  2x6  inches. 


% Replanting 

It  is  practically  always  necessary  to  replant  a field  by  hand  in 
order  to  get  a good  stand  due  to  cutworm  injury,  burning  out,  or 
other  damage.  This  is  best  done  one  or  two  weeks  after  planting. 
If  the  soil  is  in  good  tilth  it  is  usually  not  necessary  to  wait  for 
a rain  in  order  to  do  this.  A good  dibber  can  be  made  by  grind- 
ing down  a large  file  or  steel  bar  and  attaching  a knob  at  the  end 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


(Fig.  8).  With  this,  transplanting  can  be  done  in  relatively 
dry  soil  without  hand  watering  if  plants  with  good  roots  are  used. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  of  transplanting  tool  is  that  it  can  be 
used  with  ease  in  a relatively  compact  soil.  It  gives  a good  open- 
ing for  inserting  the  roots  without  crowding  and  permits  the  dirt 


FIG.  9.— THIS  FIELD  HAS  HAD  A GOOD  START 

The  young-  tobacco  crop  needs  frequent  cultivation  to  conserve  the  soil 
moisture  for  the  critical  period  in  July  when  dry  weather  is  likely  to 
occur. 

to  be  pressed  tightly  against  the  roots  Without  materially  disturb- 
ing the  tilth  of  the  soil.  In  this  way  replanting  can  be  done  a week 
to  ten  days  after  a rain  without  watering  out. 

Cultivate  Frequently 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  other  farm  crops.  The  grower  should  always  keep  in  mind  the 
chief  object  of  cultivation, — that  of  conserving  the  soil  moisture, 
which  evaporates  much  more  rapidly  from  the  soil  when  not  pro- 
tected by  a mulch.  Ordinarily,  therefore,  it  is  a good  plan  to  cul- 
tivate as  soon  as  possible  after  a rain  in  order  to  save  the  mois- 
ture for  possible  periods  of  dry  weather  which  usually  come  dur- 
ing July.  The  one-horse,  drag-tooth,  lever  adjustable  cultivator 
is  preferable  for  the  early  cultivations.  Some  growers  use  the 
two-horse  sulky  cultivator  as  the  tobacco  grows  larger ; and  if  the 
cultivator  is  skillfully  handled  good  work  can  be  done  with  it. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


23 


Weeds  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  such  a start  that  deep  culti- 
vation is  necessary.  Hand  hoeing  is  usually  necessary  and  advis- 
able. The  “horse-hoe”  or  weeder  may  replace  it  on  light  soils 
quite  free  from  weeds. 


FIG.  10. — THE  TOPPING  STAGE  OF  GROWTH 
Topping  can  be  best  done  when  the  flower  heads  are  about  this  stage. 
Some  growers  prefer  to  top  earlier. 

Diseases  and  Insects  in  the  Field 

Ordinarily  the  most  troublesome  insect  pests  in  the  field  are 
cutworms,  the  tobacco  worm,  and  grasshoppers.  The  most  ser- 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


ious  disease  in  the  field  in  Wisconsin  is  root-rot.  Mosaic,  french- 
ing,  leaf  spots  (rust)  and  other  minor  troubles  may  occur,  but 
this  subject  is  too  large  to  be  adequately  treated  in  this  bulletin.* 

Topping 

When  the  flower  heads  have  lengthened  sufficiently  to  expose 
all  the  leaves  separately,  the  tops  should  be  broken  off,  usually 


FIG.  11. — READY  FOR  HARVEST 

Tobacco  is  ready  for  harvesting:  when  it  has  been  topped  about  three 
weeks  and  suckered. 

about  one  leaf  below  the  lowest  “bald”  sucker  (a  sucker  without 
leaves).  The  practice  as  to  time  and  height  of  topping  varies 
considerably  among  growers,  but  as  a general  thing  it  is  not  good 
practice  to  go  to  either  extreme.  Ordinarily  the  best  time  to  re- 
move the  top  is  when  the  first  blossom  buds  open.  The  exact 
height  at  which  to  break  off  the  top  varies  with  the  size  and  vigor 
of  the  plant. 

Suckering 

The  suckers  grow  rapidly  after  topping  and  must  be  broken  off 
before  harvesting.  One  suckering  only  is  ordinarily  practiced  in 
Wisconsin,  although  going  over  the  field  twice  may  often  be  ad- 
visable. This  involves  considerably  more  labor  since  the  removal 


See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


25 


of  the  top  suckers  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  lower  ones.  On 
the  other  hand,  large  top  suckers  become  woody  and  are  broken 
only  with  difficulty.  Much  suckering  is  done  just  previous  to  har- 
vesting, but  in  general  it  is  best  to  sucker  the  plants  two  or  three 
days  ahead. 


FIG.  12.— THE  GROWER’S  BUSY  SEASON 
A gang  of  five  men  can  work  together  efficiently  in  harvesting.  They 
often  harvest  an  acre  a day. 


Ripening 

The  tobacco  is  usually  harvested  two  to  three  weeks  after  top- 
ping. It  is  difficult  for  an  inexperienced  person  to  determine  just 
when  the  crop  is  sufficiently  ripe  for  cutting.  The  only  change  is. 
that  the  leaves  take  on  a slight  yellow  tinge  in  spots  in  place  of 
the  normal  uniform  dark  green  color.  The  bottom  leaves  ripen 
first,  consequently  it  is  impossible  to  get  leaves  uniformly  ripe 
where  the  entire  plant  is  harvested  at  one  time.  Tobacco  har- 
vested when  slightly  green  is  more  likely  to  give  a thinner  leaf  of 
finer  quality  than  that  harvested  over-ripe,  under  good  curing  con- 
ditions. Late  tobacco  harvested  too  green  followed  by  poor  cur- 
ing conditions  is,  however,  not  likely  to  yield  good  quality. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP 

The  tobacco  harvesting  season  is  usually  a very  busy  one  and 
skilled  labor  is  high  priced.  The  grower  should  have  all  the 
necessary  tools,  equipment,  and  sheds  in  good  repair  and  the 
necessary  help  arranged  for  beforehand  so  that  no  time  need 
be  lost  on  these  details. 

Cutting 

The  plants  are  cut  with  a small  hand  ax,  close  to  the  ground. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


The  butts  are  preferably  laid  toward  the  sun  on  a hot  day.  Ordin- 
arily. each  man  cuts  only  one  row  laying  the  plants  down  on  the 
row.  In  other  cases  each  man  may  cut  two  rows  at  a time  laying 
the  plants  together.  The  best  time  to  cut  is  in  the  morning  after 
the  dew  has  left  the  plants,  and  not  later  than  three  or  possibly 
four  o’clock  on  a warm  sunny  day.  Unless  necessary,  it  is  not 
a good  plan  to  cut  down  more  than  can  be  hauled  in  each  day. 


FIG.  13.— STRINGING  OR  “SPUDDING”  TOBACCO 

To  string-  tobacco  rapidly  and  carefully  requires  experience  and  skill. 
A good  worker  can  string  from  one-half  to  one  acre  a day  depending 
on  the  condition  of  the  tobacco. 

Wilting 

The  plants  must  wilt  sufficiently  so  that  they  can  be  handled 
readily  without  breaking  the  leaves  off  the  stalk.  Care  must  be 
taken  at  midday  in  hot  weather  not  to  allow  the  wilting  leaves  to 
become  sun-burned,  since  this  causes  permanent  damage  to  the 
leaf.  On  hot,  dry  days  the  plants  may  need  to  be  piled  one  hour 
after  cutting.  Tobacco  allowed  to  wilt  too  much  before  piling 
makes  a poor  appearance  in  the  shed  and  is  more  likely  to  damage 
in  curing. 

Piling 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  sufficiently  wilted,  put  them  in  medium 
sized  piles,  butts  preferably  toward  the  sun.  When  there  is  not 
much  danger  from  burning,  the  tops  of  the  plants  can  be  spread 
out  wide  in  the  pile  bringing  the  butts  close  together  in  a narrow 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


27 


vertical  line,  thereby  aiding  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the  string- 
ing can  be  done.  The  tobacco  may  heat  and  become  damaged  in 
the  piles  if  left  for  more  than  twenty-four  hours. 


FIG.  14.— A GOOD  RACK  IS  HELPFUL 

Such  a rack  as  this  reduces  to  a minimum  the  danger  of  injuring  the 
leaf  in  handling.  A load  of  tobacco  carries  anywhere  from  80  to  120 
lath,  depending  upon  how  well  the  plants  are  wilted. 

Stringing 

Five  to  seven  plants  of  ordinary  size  are  usually  placed  on  each 
lath.  More  skill  is  required  in  this  operation,  in  order  to  do  it 
well  and  quickly  than  in  any  other  harvesting  work.  Most  of  the 
tobacco  is  strung  with  a stringing  “horse”  or  “jack”  (Fig.  13)  al- 
though some  workers  prefer  to  string  the  plant  with  one  end  of 
the  lath  on  the  ground.  The  stringing  “horse”  is  usually  made  on 
the  farm,  and  the  spear  or  “spud”  can  be  made  by  a tinsmith. 
Twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  lath  are  usually  required  per  acre. 
Special  tobacco  lath  are  best  as  ordinary  building  lath  are  too 
weak. 

Shedding 

As  soon  as  the  tobacco  plants  are  strung  they  can  be  hauled  into 
the  shed.  All  Wisconsin  growers  use  the  standard  tobacco  rack 
(Fig.  14)  which  is  usually  12  to  16  feet  long.  The  laths  are  hung 
five  to  eight  inches  apart  on  the  hangers  in  the  shed  depending  on 
the  size  of  the  tobacco.  Too  close  hanging  is  conducive  to  leaf 
damage  in  curing,  and  tobacco  hung  too  far  apart  is  likely  to  dry 
out  too  quickly  and  result  in  an  inferior  cure. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


CURING  IN  THE  SHED 

The  essentials  for  the  proper  curing  of  tobacco  are  favorable 
weather  conditions,  a properly  built  shed,  and  a thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  practical  principles  of  managing  the  curing.  A large 
portion  of  the  poorly  cured  tobacco  produced  in  Wisconsin  can  be 


FIG.  15.— A DESIRABLE  TYPE  OF  CURING  SHED 
Curing-  sheds  with  horizontal  side  ventilators  and  sufficient  ventila- 
tion at  the  ridge  are  considered  best. 


attributed  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  sheds  are  improperly  con- 
structed and  others  are  badly  in  need  of  repair.  Sheds  with  leak- 
ing roofs  and  broken  ventilators  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  cure 
tobacco  evenly.  A model  curing  barn  allows  a perfect  circulation 
of  air  when  desired  and  permits  a rapid  drying  out,  but  can  be 
closed  tightly  so  as  effectively  to  keep  out  or  retain  a moist  atmos- 
phere when  desired.  On  the  whole,  relatively  high  temperatures 
and  moderately  humid  weather  are  most  favorable  for  curing. 
The  rate  of  curing  is  much  reduced  by  low  temperatures.  Very 
moist  weather  extending  over  a considerable  period  of  time  is 
liable  to  result  in  damage  and  the  grower  must  then  rely  upon  his 
judgment  in  handling  the  curing  process  to  prevent  damage. 

Principles  of  Ventilation 

To  obtain  a proper  circulation  of  air  it  is  necessary  to  have  ven- 
tilators at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  shed  so  that  the  air  may  pass, 
as  it  were,  through  a large  flue.  The  shed  should  be  built  so  as 
to  allow  a horizontal  ventilator  to  be  attached  below  the  sill,  ex- 
tending the  full  length  on  both  sides  of  the  shed.  The  roof  or 
ridge  ventilator  may  run  along  the  entire  length  of  the  shed  or  a 
series  of  small  galvanized  iron  chimneys  containing  dampers 
which  can  be  regulated  from  the  ground  by  means  of  ropes  may 
be  used.  With  the  ventilators  at  the  top  and  bottom  open,  dry  air 
may  enter  at  the  bottom  of  the  shed  and  once  inside  will  absorb 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


29 


moisture.  Moist  air  is  lighter  than  dry  air  and  therefore  will 
tend  to  rise.  As  it  rises  through  the  tiers  of  tobacco  it  gets  warm- 
er and  lighter,  absorbing  more  and  more  moisture,  and  finally 
forces  itself  out  through  the  top  ventilators.  This  system  works 
perfectly  when  the  air  outside  the  shed  is  dry,  but  should  it  be- 
come laden  with  moisture,  however,  the  drying  effect  naturally 


FIG.  16.— THE  VERTICAL  VENTILATOR  SHED 

While  this  type  of  shed  may  be  built  more  cheaply  it  is  not  as  satis- 
factory nor  as  convenient  as  the  shed  in  Fig.  15. 

stops,  and  the  shed  may  be  closed  up  tightly  to  prevent  more  mois- 
ture getting  in.  If  the  weather  is  moist  for  a long  time  at  a critical 
period  in  curing,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  artificial  heat  to 
start  circulation  and  dry  off  the  crop  to  prevent  damage. 

In  order  to  produce  a rapid  change  in  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  shed  when  desired,  it  is  also  necessary  to  have 
ventilators,  preferably  horizontal,  just  below  each  tier  of  tobacco, 
on  both  sides  of  the  shed.  These  are  used  especially  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  curing  process,  and  later  to  bring  the  leaf  into 
“case”  for  stripping. 

Managing  the  Curing  Process 

Exact  recommendations  for  managing  the  curing  cannot  be 
given  since  this  will  be  largely  determined  by  the  weather.  The 
change  from  the  normal  green,  through  the  yellow  and  to  the 
brown  color  is  an  expression  of  a living  process  in  the  leaf,  and 


30  Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 

while  the  process  can  be  hastened  by  high  temperatures  if  the 
humidity  is  kept  up,  it  should  not  be  hastened  by  any  excessive 
drying  process.  Essentially  the  management  of  the  curing  under 
Wisconsin  conditions  should  be  based  on  the  principle  that  curing 
is  a slow  drying  process.  The  operator  must  go  into  the  shed, 
feel  the  leaves  and  regulate  the  ventilation  according  to  his  judg- 


FIG.  17. — STRIPPING  FROM  THE  LATH 
Some  grading-  should  be  done  during  stripping.  Well-made,  neat  bun- 
dles are  frequently  an  aid  in  marketing  the  crop. 

ment.  In  general,  during  the  first  two  weeks  the  shed  should  be 
opened  during  the  day  and  closed  at  night.  If  it  starts  to  cure 
too  rapidly  it  should  be  closed  up  in  the  daytime  and  opened  at 
night.  Under  favorable  curing  conditions,  after  a thorough  wilt, 
sufficient  circulation  may  be  had  by  opening  only  the  bottom  and 
ridge  ventilators.  Some  attention  must  be  given  until  the  crop  is 
entirely  cured  out,  which  is  only  when  the  midribs  are  well  dried 
out,  and  the  weather  has  become  so  cool  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  damage. 

Damage  During  Curing 

During  extended  periods  of  excessive  moisture,  especially  when 
the  leaf  is  changing  from  the  yellow  to  the  brown  stage,  “shed 
burn”  or  “pole  sweat”  is  liable  to  occur.  A decay  of  the  midrib, 
known  as  stem  rot  is  also  likely  to  appear  under  similar  condi- 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


31 


tions  at  a later  stage  of  curing.  Too  close  hanging  is  of  course 
conducive  to  such  damage.  Normally,  proper  ventilation  will 
check  it;  otherwise  artificial  heat  is  necessary.* 


FIG.  18.— PACKING  THE  LEAF 

After  the  tobacco  is  assorted  it  is  packed  in  boxes  28x28  inches  and 
from  36  to  48  inches  long.  It  is  then  pressed  tightly  and  stored. 

Preparing  for  Market 

Tobacco  is  usually  harvested  between  August  20  and  September 
20.  By  the  latter  part  of  November  the  crop  may  be  sufficiently 
cured  to  be  taken  down  and  stripped  if  brought  into  ‘'case”.  Fre- 
quently, however,  casing  weather  may  not  come  until  January  or 
even  March.  When  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  tobacco  into  case  the 
ventilators  and  doors  should  be  opened  during  rainy  or  foggy 
weather  until  the  leaf  in  the  middle  and  top  of  the  shed  is  in  a 
pliable  condition,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  get  any  of  the  leaf 
in  too  high  “case”.  Frequently  only  a portion  of  the  crop  comes 
into  case  and  this  may  be  taken  down,  permitting  later  casing 
weather  to  get  at  the  remaining  leaf  more  readily.  When  taken 
down  the  laths  are  stacked  closely  in  large  round  or  rectangular 
piles  with  butts  out  to  prevent  drying  prior  to  stripping.  The 
stripping  of  the  leaves  from  the  stalks  is  now  usually  done  while 
they  are  still  on  the  lath.  The  lath  is  slipped  into  a slot  at  the 
proper  height  so  the  plants  hang  in  an  inverted  vertical  position, 

*See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


and  both  hands  are  used  for  picking  the  leaves.  The  plants  also 
can  be  pulled  off  the  lath,  piled,  and  stripped  individually. 

The  more  common  practice  is  to  strip  the  “sand-leaves”  and 
ragged  leaves  from  the  bottom,  tie  them  up  in  “hands”  and  pack 
separately.  Damaged,  wet,  or  other  poor  grades  should  also  be 
separated  from  the  good  grade  of  leaf. 


FIG.  19. — THE  STORAGE  ROOM 

Here  the  leaf  passes  through  the  fermentation  or  sweating  process 
which  usually  requires  several  months. 

The  leaves  when  stripped  should  be  packed  evenly  and  tightly 
in  packing  boxes  with  the  tips  overlapping  sufficiently  to  hold 
the  bundle  together.  Special  packing  boxes  (Fig.  17)  of  the 
proper  size  and  furnished  with  a good  press  can  be  purchased  on 
the  market.  Standard  grades  of  tobacco  packing  paper  and  wool 
twine  should  be  used  and  the  bundles  should  preferably  weigh 
between  forty  and  fifty  pounds. 

The  bundles  can  be  safely  stored  in  the  sheds  or  other  places, 
where  they  will  not  become  wet  or  too  dry,  in  piles  about  three 
bundles  high  until  delivered  to  the  warehouses  or  until  April  or 
May.  If  the  tobacco  is  not  sold  in  the  bundle  it  should  be  sorted 
and  packed  in  boxes  for  long  storage. 

Good  Handling  Important 

The  grower  may  do  as  much  at  stripping  time  as  in  any  other 
stage  of  handling  the  crop  in  increasing  its  market  value.  Spe- 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


33 


cial  care  should  be  taken  not  to-  get  the  leaf  into  too  high  case 
since  this  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  damage  either  in  the  grow- 
ers’ or  packers’  hands.  High  case  tobacco  should^  either  be  bun- 
dled separately  or  hung  up  again  to  dry.  In  addition  to  this,  all 
damaged  or  poor  grades  should  be  removed.  The  making  of  neat, 
medium-sized  bundles,  even  at  the  butts,  will  also  aid  in  getting 


FIG.  20. — BULK  FERMENTATION 

Before  being-  packed  into  the  boxes  the  leaf  is  sometimes  “bulk- 
sweated”  in  larger  quantities  to  hasten  the  fermentation  process  and  to 
reduce  the  danger  of  damage  in  the  boxes. 

a better  purchase  price.  The  grower  soon  establishes  a reputa- 
tion among  buyers  as  a good  or  poor  “handler”  of  tobacco  and 
this  eventually  reacts  on  the  price  paid,  whether  the  crop  is 
bought  on  the  field  or  in  the  bundle. 

Assorting  and  Sizing 

The  tobacco  crop  is  usually  purchased  by  the  buyers  in  Wis- 
consin while  it  is  growing  in  the  field  or  during  the  winter  months, 
and  occasionally  later  in  the  season.  The  assorting  and  sizing, 
that  is,  the  grading  of  the  individual  leaves  according  to  size  and 
quality  is  usually  done  in  the  warehouses  by  the  local  packers  or 
dealers  in  tobacco.  The  “hands”  of  the  various  grades  of  leaf 
usually  contain  15  to  30  leaves  tied  together  at  the  butts  with  a 
leaf.  The  various  grades  are  packed  separately  into  boxes  holding 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  33 7 


three  or  four  hundred  pounds  each.  Here  they  pass  through  the 
fermentation  or  sweating  process,  or  are  packed  in  large  bulks  of 
several  thousand  pounds  where  they  undergo  rapid  fermentation 
before  they  are  packed  into  the  boxes.  The  leaf  is  also  “aged,” 
stored  and  shipped  to  the  manufacturers  in  these  same  boxes. 


FIG.  21.— A PACKER’S  SAMPLE 

A sample  of  tobacco  usually  containing-  four  “hands”  drawn  from  a 
case  is  used  as  a basis  of  value. 

Grades  of  Tobacco 

The  grading  of  tobacco  according  to  size  and  quality  varies 
considerably  in  the  different  packing  houses  in  the  state.  Ordi- 
narily the  farmers’  crop  is  purchased  on  the  basis  of  one  or  more 
of  three  classes:  (1)  Binder  leaf  or  sorting  tobacco,  (2)  Stem- 


Tobacco  in  Wisconsin 


35 


ming  goods  or  damaged  tobacco,  (3)  “Fillers”,  i.  e.,  sand  or  bot- 
tom leaves.  If  the  grower  carefully  separates  his  crop  into  these 
three  classes,  it  is  usually  to  his  advantage  in  the  long  run.  If  the 
bottom  leaves  are  “stripped  in”  the  purchaser  usually  figures  10 
to  15  per  cent  of  the  total  at  the  prevailing  price  for  this  grade. 
Even  a low  percentage  of  damaged  tobacco  in  the  crop  may  re- 
sult in  bringing  the  price  down  to  that  of  stemming  stock  or  re- 
sult in  “docking”  at  delivery.  The  stemming  grade  usually  in- 
cludes leaf  damaged  in  any  way  as  by  poor  cultural  or  curing  con- 
ditions, wind,  hail,  disease  or  insect  injury,  high  case,  and  wet 
or  immature  leaf.  When  tobacco  is  sorted,  much  of  this  grade  is 
separated  as  “rags,”  seconds,  or  damaged.  The  top  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  usually  heavier  in  body,  darker  and  not  satisfactory  for 
cigar  binders.  These  leaves,  usually  under  16  inches  in  length, 
are  classed  as  “B’s”  and  are  sorted  out.  They  may  or  may  not 
again  be  sized ; and  are  known  in  the  trade  as  Wisconsin  cigar 
fillers.  The  remaining  leaf  of  best  quality  is  sized  into  hands 
of  approximately  equal  lengths.  These  hands  are  placed  into 
two-inch  classes — usually  from  16  to  28  inches — so  that  we  have 
grades  known  as  3A  and  4A  up  to  8A.  In  packing  houses  these 
grades  are  packed  into  separate  boxes  with  the  grade  and  weight 
stenciled  on  the  box. 

Fermentation  or  Sweating 

Tobacco  must  go  through  this  process  before  attaining  the 
proper  flavor  and  aroma.  Various  complex  changes  occur  about 
which  little  is  known,  but  these  are  apparently  a direct  result  of 
the  spontaneous  heating  of  the  bulks  or  cases  of  tobacco.  The 
temperature  in  the  fermenting  leaf  may  run  up  as  high  as 
130-140°  F.,  although  usually  it  does  not  go  higher  than  95- 
120°  F. 

The  fermentation  process  may  be  fairly  complete  in  a few  weeks 
where  bulking  large  quantities  is  practiced,  but  in  the  boxes  the 
process  may  be  delayed  and  not  completed  until  late  summer.  To- 
bacco is  usually  “aged,”  that  is,  allowed  to  remain  in  the  boxes 
for  six  months  to  two  years  or  more  after  fermentation,  as  this 
improves  its  quality.  Damage  from  “black  rot,”  “must”  and 
molds  may  occur  during  sweating.* 

•See  other  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  bulletins  on  tobacco. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  337 


The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  receives  a number  of  re- 
quests annually  from  persons  growing  small  quantities  of  to- 
bacco for  their  own  use  who  want  to  know  how  to  ferment  it. 
It  is  very  difficult,  however,  to  ferment  small  quantities  of  tobacco 
properly,  since  the  heat  if  developed  is  not  maintained  long 
enough  to  produce  the  necessary  changes.  If  these  small  amounts 
of  tobacco  can  be  kept  sufficiently  and  constantly  warm  for  a 
period  of  time  without  drying  out  it  is  possible  to  develop  con- 
siderable flavor  and  aroma.  To  do  this  the  leaf  must  necessarily 
be  packed  in  an  almost  air-tight  box  and  kept  in  a warm  place 
(95-120°  F.)  where  the  heat  is  fairly  constant  for  several  weeks. 


etin  338  » 

Wl^b 


January,  1922 


i EXPERIMENT  STATION 
ITY  OK  WISCONSIN 
-MADISON  * . , 


DIGEST 


Winter  loss  of  bees  is  the  most  serious  problem  among  Wiscon- 
sin beekeepers.  The  problem  is  also  serious  throughout  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  Page  3. 

Successful  wintering  is  possible,  however,  when  a proper  tempera- 
ture is  maintained  during  storage,  when  a liberal  quantity  of  good 
stores  is  provided  and  when  the  bees  used  for  wintering  are  of  the 
right  age.  Page  4. 

The  place  where  bees  are  wintered  makes  little  difference  provid- 
ing other  conditions  are  suitable.  The  temperature  of  the  bee  cel- 
lar must  be  near  45°  F.  to  50°  F.  to  give  the  best  results.  Page  14 

Too  much  ventilation  in  the  cellar  may  cause  serious  losses  among 
the  bees  in  winter.  See  that  the  bees  are  well  protected  and  sheltered 
from  the  prevailing  winds  in  spring.  Page  17 

Put  the  bees  in  early  and  remove  them  early  but  give  them  spring 
protection.  Page  18. 

The  fundamentals  of  spring  care  are:  Bees  to  begin  with,  protec- 
tion during  April  and  May;  large  amounts  of  stores;  and  not  less 
than  two  hive  bodies  for  spring  brood  rearing.  Page  25. 

Provide  every  colony  with  more  stores  than  you  think  it  can  use 
during  April  and  May.  The  strong  colony  will  need  from  75  to  100 
pounds  of  stores  to  build  up  during  the  spring.  Page  26, 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 

H.  F.  Wilson 

Winter  loss  is  the  most  troublesome  problem  in  the  bee  indus- 
try of  Wisconsin.  The  average  winter  losses  for  the  entire  state 
are  from  15  to  20  per  cent  and  sometimes  run  as  high  as  30 
per  cent.  Certain  beekeepers  have  reported  losses  as  high  as 
90  per  cent  in  apiaries  of  more  than  100  colonies.  The  problem 
is  also  serious  throughout  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  because  of  the  long  period  during  which  the  bees  are  shut 
in  without  flight. 

Successful  wintering  with  very  little  loss  is  possible,  however, 
when  a proper  temperature  is  maintained  during  storage,  when 
a liberal  quantity  of  good  stores  is  provided  and  when  the  bees 
used  for  wintering  are  of  the  right  age. 

Three  Distinct  Periods  of  Winter  Care 

Winter  care  of  bees  covers  three  distinct  periods.  The  first, 
or  fall  period,  extends  from  about  September  1 to  November 
20  and  is  the  period  of  getting  the  bees  ready  for  winter.  Dur- 
ing the  second  or  winter  period,  November  20  to  March  21, 
the  bees  may  be  expected  to  remain  in  the  hives  without  flight 
and  should  not  be  disturbed  except  under  extreme  conditions. 
The  third,  or  spring  period,  is  from  March  20  or  the  time  when 
the  bees  are  set  out  until  about  the  middle  of  May.  This  is 
the  period  for  rebuilding  the  loss  of  colony  strength  caused  by 
winter  conditions. 

With  suitable  protection,  bees  can  be  removed  from  the  cellar 
on  or  about  March  21  and  the  beekeeper  may  plan  to  examine 
the  bees  between  March  20  and  April  1 if  it  seems  at  all  neces- 
sary. Bees  packed  out-of-doors  will  not  need  to  be  disturbed 
until  May  if  properly  prepared  in  the  fall.  Cellar-wintered 
bees  should  be  packed  as  soon  as  they  are  placed  outside  and 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


on  the  day  of  the 'first  flight  should  be  examined  to  determine 
their  condition. 

How  Bees  are  Affected  by  Winter  Conditions 

Temperature  has  a great  deal  to  do  with  successful  winter- 
ing of  bees,  but  winter  stores  and  the  age  of  the  bees  are  equal- 
ly important.  Under  the  very  best  temperature  conditions  bees 
cannot  remain  shut  in  over  long  periods  if  the  stores  are  not 
easily  digestible. 

The  fact  that  bees  are  able  to  digest  only  the  sugars  from 
their  stores  and  that  all  indigestible  materials  are  held  in  the 
hind  part  of  the  alimentary  tract  until  the  bees  are  able  to  free 
themselves  in  flight,  is  evidence  that  successful  wintering  de- 
pends to  a very  large  extent  on  the  quality  of  the  stores.  Win- 
ter conditions  start  as  early  as  September  in  Wisconsin  because 
brood  rearing  is  cut  down  at  that  time  and  may  be  completely 
stopped.  Normally  no  eggs  are  found  after  October  1,  although 
egg  laying  in  a few  colonies  may  continue  until  November. 

Bees  are  less  active  in  the  fall  than  in  ‘the  spring  and  fre- 
quently when  the  temperatures  are  fairly  high  some  colonies 
will  have  very  few  bees  flying  while  others  are  quite  active. 
Low  temperatures  at  night  followed  by  slowly  rising  temperatures 
on  the  following  day  have  a tendency  to  check  the  flight  of  the 
field  bees  even  when  the  temperature  rises  to  70°  F.  during  the 
day.  At  that  temperature,  or  slightly  below,  young  bees  will 
freely  engage  in  their  play  flights.  Bees  were  observed  flying 
when  the  temperature  was  as  low  as  35°  F.  but  it  was  quite 
evident  that  they  were  suffering  badly  from  dysentery  and  only 
a few  managed  to  get  back  to  the  hives.  Bees  commonly  fly 
when  the  temperature  is  as  low  as  48°  F. ; but  perhaps  only  to 
free  themselves  of  feces,  as  individual  bees  fly  out  and  after  a 
short  circle  immediately  enter  the  hive  again.  When  the  tem- 
perature goes  as  low  as  50°  F.  on  the  outside  of  the  hive,  the 
temperature  in  the  hive  is  about  60°  F.  and  the  bees  are  found 
moving  around  freely  inside. 

With  the  temperatures  of  45°  F.  to  55°  F.  outside  the  hives, 
the  bees  form  a loose  cluster.  In  this  they  remain  more  or  less 
together  but  move  about  freely;  and  single  bees  may  be  seen 
moving  about  by  themselves.  The  temperature  at  the  edge  of 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


5 


the  cluster  is  about  58°  F.  to  60°  F.  At  these  temperatures  the 
bees  do  not  form  a definite  shaped  cluster  but  arrange  them- 
selves more  according  to  the  distribution  of  the  stores.  If  no 
combs  are  completely  filled  with  honey,  the  cluster  may  extend 
clear  across  the  brood  chamber  including  eight  to  ten  frames,  or 
if  the  outside  frames  are  well  filled  with  honey,  the  cluster  may 
extend  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  hive  and  cover  three  or 
four  frames. 

Below  40°  F.  outside  the  hive,  the  cluster  becomes  more  com- 
pact and  rounded,  provided  the  clustering  space  will  permit. 

Phillips  and  Demuth  have  shown  that  the  temperature  around 
the  edge  of  the  cluster  is  not  allowed  to  get  below  57°  F.  and 
that  lower  outside  temperatures  cause  higher  temperatures  in- 
side the  cluster.  The  temperature  within  the  cluster  is  devel- 
oped by  the  bees  through  muscular  action  such  as  fanning  the 
wings,  moving  the  legs,  and  other  body  movements.  The  upper 
edge  of  the  cluster  will  be  found  just  above  the  lower  edge  of 
the  honey  until  the  top  bar  is  reached,  then  the  cluster  moves 
sidewise  toward  the  rear  of  the  hive  unless  the  cluster  was  first 
formed  at  that  point. 

If  the  temperature  surrounding  the  cluster  is  not  too  low,  the 
bees  will  shift  the  cluster  according  to  the  location  of  the  stores, 
but  it  is  not  uncommon  in  the  spring  to  find  all  the  bees  dead 
within  the  form  of  the  cluster  and  plenty  of  stores  only  a few 
inches  from  the  cluster.  This  is  somewhat  common  during  a 
severe  winter  in  Wisconsin  if  bees  are  left  out-of-doors  and  un- 
packed. • Apparently  the  bees  will  not  break  the  cluster  when  the 
temperature  around  them  is  below  a certain  point  and  thus  star- 
vation occurs.  In  such  clusters  the  bees  are  found  packed  tightly 
together  with  a bee  in  each  cell  head  inward. 

Unless  disturbed  by  some  outside  influence  or  unusual  con- 
dition within  the  hive,  the  cluster  is  never  broken  so  long  as 
the  temperature  around  it  is  below  57°  F.  Observations  at  the 
entrance  of  the  hive  while  bees  are  in  the  cellar  show  that  the 
cluster  is  affected  by  slight  changes  in  the  cellar  temperature. 
During  the  winter  of  1917-1918  it  was  noticed  that  wherever  the 
cellar  temperatures  were  below  40°  F.  nothing  could  be  seen 
of  the  bottom  of  the  cluster,  but  when  the  temperature  was  above 
50°  F.  the  lower  edge  of  the  cluster  would  extend  below  the 
frames  to  the  bottom  board  and  bees  could  be  seen  moving  about 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


more  or  less  freely.  If  the  cellar  temperature  rises  to  60°  F. 
or  above  the  bees  may  be  driven  to  cluster  outside  the  hive. 

Preparing  Bees  for  Winter 

Under  normal  conditions  if  bees  have  plenty  of  good  stores 
and  are  properly  protected  they  will  not  need  special  care  in  the 
fall  unless  it  should  be  to  stimulate  brood  rearing  during  Sep- 
tember. Every  beekeeper,  however,  should  know  what  condi- 
tions are  necessary  for  successful  wintering  and  he  should  see 
that  these  are  provided. 

To  begin  with,  every  colony  should  have  a young  queen  less 
than  a year  old,  whose  greatest  egg  laying  period  has  not  been 
reached.  Then  if  the  bees  have  a tendency  to  stop  brood  rearing 
in  the  fall  stimulative  feeding  may  be  resorted  to  so  that  the 
queen  may  be  kept  laying  eggs  until  near  the  first  of  October. 

The  breeding  of  queens,  that  not  only  gather  large  crops  of 
honey  but  that  also  continue  egg  laying  late  in  the  fall,  is  an  im- 
portant question  that  has  been  little  discussed.  During  October 
plans  should  be  made  to  provide  plenty  of  good  stores.  At  the 
same  time  the  bees  should  be  protected — the  amount  depending 
on  whether  or  not  they  are  to  be  wintered  outside  or  inside  the 
cellar.  If  they  are  to  be  wintered  outside  it  is  best  to  provide 
two  hive  bodies  for  the  brood  chamber ; if  they  are  to  winter 
in  the  cellar,  reduce  the  brood  chamber  to  one  hive  body. 

If  the  bees  are  given  plenty  of  good  stores  and  allowed  to  ar- 
range their  own  brood  nest,  no  special  preparation  of  the  hive  is 
necessary  provided  either  that  the  bees  are  well  packed  or  that 
the  temperature  of  the  bee  cellar  is  kept  near  50°  F.  When 
the  temperature  outside  the  hive  is  between  45°  F.  and  50° 
F.  the  bees  move  about  in  the  hive  more  or  less  freely;  and  at 
50°  F.  or  above,  the  cluster  will  spread  itself  out  and  the  bees 
can  regulate  the  ventilation  according  to  their  needs.  If  the 
temperature  is  as  low  as  35°  F.,  moisture  condenses  on  the  cover 
and  sides  of  the  hive.  Below  32°  F.  this  moisture  forms  ice 
wherever  the  warmth  from  the  bees  does  not  keep  the  tem- 
perature above  freezing  point.  Removing  the  cover  and  leav- 
ing the  hive  open  at  the  top  does  not  improve  the  condition  of 
the  bees  although  condensation  of  moisture  may  not  be  in  evi- 
dence. If  the  cellar  temperature  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  50c 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


7 


F.  it  will  do  no  harm  to  remove  the  cover,  but  below  that  point 
the  covers  should  be  tight  in  order  to  help  hold  the  warmth  de- 
veloped by  the  bees. 

Removing  the  bottom  boards  or  increasing  the  clustering 
space  below  is  unnecessary  except  for  constant  temperatures 
above  50°  F.  For  lower  temperatures  the  smaller  opening  on 
the  bottom  board  is  best.  Every  cover  should  be  tightly  sealed 
and  there  should  be  sufficient  stores  in  the  hive  at  the  beginning 
so  that  the  bees  will  not  need  to  be  disturbed  during  the  winter. 


AMOUNT  AND  KIND  OF  STORES 

Strong  colonies  of  young  bees,  given  the  best  quality  stores  and 
the  right  protection  may  be  shut  in  over  unusually  long  periods 
without  much  loss.  Stores  that  contain  gums,  dextrins,  or  other 
foreign  substances,  however,  cannot  be  digested  by  the  bees 
and  therefore  cause  dysentery.  Most  of  the  honeys  produced 
in  Wisconsin  are  suitable  for  the  bees  to  winter  on — even  our 
fall  honey  is  not  bad  when  free  from  contamination  by  honey- 
dew  and  fruit  juices,  which  the  bees  gather  when  nectar  is  not 
available.  Honeydew  is  available  to  the  bees  in  varying  quan- 
tities from  June  to  October  but  more  is  gathered  during  August 
and  September  than  at  any  other  time  because  there  is  little 
nectar  being  secreted  by  the  flowers.  Like  honey,  honeydew 
varies  greatly  in  color  so  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  know 
when  it  is  being  carried  in. 

For  this  reason  it  is  very  desirable  that  a double  brood  cham- 
ber formed  by  two  hive  bodies  be  used.  The  honey  stored  in 
the  upper  half  of  the  brood  chamber  during  the  early  part  of 
the  honey  flow  should  be  saved  and  given  to  the  bees  for  winter 
stores  in  October  after  brood  rearing  ends.  The  other  half 
may  then  be  set  aside  and  returned  to  the  bees  in  the  spring 
for  brood  rearing. 

Feeding  Sugar  Syrup — Sugar  syrup  is  very  satisfactory  for 
winter  stores,  especially  to  carry  the  bees  over  from  the  time 
they  are  put  in  the  celar  until  they  can  fly  in  the  spring.  All 
feeding  should  be  done  before  the  first  of  November  before  cold 
nights  prevail.  Experiments  at  the  University  apiary  show  that 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


syrup  made  of  two  parts  sugar  and  one  part  water  by  weight 
will  be  reduced  to  about  two-thirds  the  original  amount,  so  that 
if  the  beekeeper  plans  to  provide  20  pounds  of  sugar  stores  for 
winter  he  must  feed  at  least  30  pounds  of  sugar  syrup. 

How  Much  Stores  Do  Bees  Need? — By  weighing  62  colonies 
in  the  fall  on  the  day  when  they  were  put  in  the  cellar  and  again 
weighing  them  on  the  day  when  they  were  set  out  it  was  found 
that  individual  colonies  decreased  in  weight  from  3 to  15  pounds 
and  that  the  average  decrease  is  between  6 and  7 pounds.  (These 
records  were  made  in  a cellar  registering  from  45°  F.  to  56° 
F.  temperature  and  about  72  per  cent  humidity.) 

A ten-frame  hive  with  ten  empty  combs,  bottomboard  and 
cover,  weighs  about  28  pounds  and  the  average  colony  of  bees 
will  weigh  about  3 pounds  or  more  in  the  fall,  so  that  32  to 
35  pounds  may  be  figured  as  the  weight  of  hive  and  bees,  and 
all  above  that  as  pollen  or  honey.  If  a colony  of  bees  weighs 
50  pounds  at  the  time  when  it  is  put  in  the  cellar  there  should 
be  ample  stores  to  carry  it  through  until  brooding  time  in  the 
spring  unless  a very  large  part  of  the  weight  is  made  up  of 
pollen. 

Colonies  packed  out-of-doors  should  weigh  at  least  60  pounds 
when  packed  and  if  the  fall  temperatures  continue  high  each 
colony  should  be  examined  in  November  to  see  that  at  least 
30  pounds  of  stores  are  in  each  hive.  The  average  weight  of 
an  empty  drawn  comb  is  1^4  pounds  so  that  the  amount  of 
stores  in  each  frame  may  be  approximately  estimated  by  weigh- 
ing a few  frames  and  deducting  the  weight  of  the  comb. 


CELLAR  VERSUS  OUTDOOR  WINTERING 

It  might  seem  that  cellar  wintering  is  more  desirable  than 
packing  bees  out-of-doors  considering  the  facts  now  known 
about  the  relation  of  temperature  to  the  health  of  bees  in  winter. 
Yet  it  cannot  be  definitely  said  that  outdoor  wintering  is  less 
successful  than  cellar  wintering  even  at  the  extreme  northern 
border  of  the  state.  In  fact  there  seems  to  be  no  northern  limit 
in  Wisconsin  for  successful  wintering  of  bees  out-of-doors. 
Beekeepers  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  report 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


9 


many  years  of  success  with  as  small  an  amount  as  6 inches 
of  packing.  Under  proper  conditions  cellar  wintering  is  prob- 
ably best,  but  nevertheless  some  Wisconsin  beekeepers  success- 
fully winter  bees  out-of-doors  year  after  year  with  even  less 
apparent  losses  than  among  cellar-wintered  bees.  Furthermore, 
there  is  considerable  evidence  to  show  that  the  so-called  heavy 
packing  of  10  or  more  inches  all  around  is  not  as  satisfactory 
as  4 to  6 inches.  The  heavier  packing,  however,  has  not  beei. 
sufficiently  tested  in  Wisconsin  to  permit  passing  judgment  on 


FIG.  1. — COLONIES  WINTERED  IN  PERFECT  CONDITION  IN  THIS 

BOX 

So  long-  as  bees  are  protected,  it  makes  little  difference  where  they 
are.  This  box  was  kept  in  a lighted  basement  but  the  light  was  shut  off 
from  the  bees  by  blankets. 

it.  It  is  not  advisable  for  any  beekeeper  to  change  his  present 
system  if  his  winter  loss  does  not  exceed  5 per  cent  of  the  total. 

Observations  at  the  University  apiary  show  that  much  of  the 
success  from  outdoor  wintering  comes  from  the  protection  given 
the  bees  in  the  spring.  Few  beekeepers  realize  that  this  is  es- 
sential for  the  greatest  success  and  fully  as  important  as  pro- 
tection from  December  to  April.  During  the  winter  the  bees 
can  probably  keep  up  the  vital  temperature  at  57°  F.  around  the 
edge  of  the  cluster  with  less  expenditure  of  energy  than  they 
can  the  brood  rearing  temperature  of  93°  F,  during  the  spring 
months. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


In  the  first  period  the  bees  are  forced  to  use  energy  only  in 
digesting  food  and  producing  warmth. 

In  the  spring  period  even  greater  amounts  of  energy  are  neces- 
sary to  cover  a wider  range  of  temperatures.  At  the  same  time, 
additional  energy  is  required  for  the  production  of  larval  food 
and  perhaps  wax. 

When  all  beekeepers  give  spring  protection  to  cellar-wintered 
bees  it  will  be  possible  to  compare  cellar-wintering  more  fittingly 
with  outside  wintering. 

Packing  bees  out-of-doors  is  a complete  system  which  extends 
from  October  until  May  if  done  correctly.  Wintering  bees  in 
the  cellar  without  fall  and  spring  protection  is  only  a part  of  a 
system  and  cannot  be  used  as  a basis  for  judging  its  success. 

Neither  can  the  system  be  judged  unless  the  facts  known  about 
the  health  requirements  for  bees  under  long  periods  of  confine- 
ment are  rigidly  applied.  A cellar  in  which  the  temperature  is 
allowed  to  go  below  freezing  offers  no  protection  and  is  of  value 
only  as  a windbreak. 

The  great  advantage  of  having  bees  packed  out-of-doors  is 
that  they  can  have  a later  cleansing  flight  in  the  fall  and  an 
earlier  flight  in  the  spring  than  bees  wintered  in  the  cellar. 


OUTSIDE  PACKING  FOR  BEES 

A few  beekeepers  winter  bees  out-of-doors  without  any  packing 
at  all  and,. strange  as  it  may  be,  some  of  the  colonies  manage 
to  survive.  However,  the  loss  usually  runs  from  25  to  100  per 
cent  and  the  crop  production  from  the  remaining  colonies  is 
comparatively  low. 

The  majority  of  Wisconsin  beekeepers  winter  their  bees  in 
cellars  but  a number  use  packing  cases. 

Few  beekeepers  use  more  than  6 inches  of  packing  all  around 
and  many  pack  with  only  3 or  4.  It  is  difficult  to  recommend  the 
number  of  hives  to  be  packed  together  because  when  the  pack- 
ing is  properly  done  it  seems  to  make  little  difference  except  for 
the  cost  of  the  packing  cases. 

In  Sheboygan  county  where  outdoor  wintering  is  more  gen- 
erally practiced  than  elsewhere  in  the  state  and  with  the  greatest 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


11 


FIG.  2.— THE  FOUR  COLONY  PACKING  CASE 

Shavings  may  be  used  in  preparing  the  bottom  packing.  (Upper).) 

In  the  four  colony  packing  case  the  hives  should  be  set  in  this  man- 
ner preparatory  to  putting  up  the  walls  and  filling  in  the  packing. 
(Lower.) 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


success,  hives  are  packed  singly  and  only  2 to  3 inches  of  pack- 
ing are  given.  All  Sheboygan  county  beekeepers  cover  each 
hive  very  carefully  with  several  wrappings  of  newspapers  and 
then  fill  in  with  packing.  In  every  case  observed  where  bees 
were  packed  in  this  manner,  winter  losses  have  been  compara- 
tively small.  The  kind  of  insulation,  however,  seems  to  play 
a more  important  part  than  the  amount,  and  protection  from  the 
wind  is  equally  as  important  as  the  packing. 

Kind  of  Packing  to  Use 

Sawdust  and  shavings  make  good  packing  if  properly  managed. 
Shavings  should  be  packed  in  tight  while  sawdust  should  be  put 
in  loose.  Leaves  serve  the  purpose  well  but  should  be  closely 
packed. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  cases  be  watertight  so  that  water 
cannot  enter  and  freeze  and  thereby  damage  the  power  of  in- 
sulation. Cases  have  been  observed  where  water  had  worked 
through  the  packing  to  the  hives  and  formed  a solid  coating  of 
ice  surrounding  them. 

Shelter  Against  Wind  Must  Be  Provided 

Every  apiary  wintered  out-of-doors  should  be  sheltered  from 
direct  winds ; and  cellar-wintered  bees  should  be  so  protected  in 
the  fall  and  spring.  Buildings,  trees,  or  fences  high  enough  to 
break  the  force  of  the  winds  will  serve,  or  the  apiary  may  be 
placed  in  a hollow  or  below  a bluff  breaking  the  winds  from 
the  north  and  west. 

Packing  and  Unpacking 

Bees  should  be  packed  out-of-doors  not  later  than  the  middle 
of  October.  Normally,  freezing  temperatures  may  be  expected 
in  October  and  may  continue  for  several  days.  Temperatures 
as  low  as  15°  F.  may  occur  and  are  sure  to  come  in  November. 
It  is  a serious  mistake  to  allow  bees  to  pass  through  several 
weeks  of  cold  weather  before  they  are  packed,  and  very  bad 
beekeeping  to  pack  them  during  a protracted  cold  spell.  Pack 
them  early  as  soon  as  brood  rearing  has  stopped  and  on  a day 
when  they  are  flying  freely. 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


13 


Do  not  unpack  bees  until  May  1 regardless  of  whether  or  not 
it  is  necessary  to  work  with  the  bees  in  the  packing  cases.  It 
is  a good  plan  to  use  bags  for  holding  the  packing  together  and 
then  the  packing  on  top  of  the  hives  can  be  shifted  with  very 
little  trouble.  This  is  also  a convenient  way  of  handling  the 
packing  and  storing  it  during  the  summer  months. 

It  is  entirely  too  cold  during  the  entire  month  of  April  of 
the  normal  year  for  bees  to  be  without  packing. 


FIG.  3.— THE  FOUR-COLONY  PACKING  CASE  IN  USE  IN  NORTHERN 

WISCONSIN 

This  type  of  winter  case  with  6 to  8 inches  of  packing  has  proven 
ve^y  successful  for  wintering  bees  in  Wisconsin. 

THE  BEE  CELLAR 

Many  places  used  for  winter  storage  were  visited,  some  of 
which  had  been  especially  built  for  wintering  bees,  during  the 
investigations  made  by  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture. 
One  of  two  conditions  nearly  always  existed.  Either  the  stor- 
age places  were  so  situated  that  they  failed  to  give  adequate 
protection  and  the  temperature  on  the  inside  was  only  slightly 
above  that  on  the  outside,  or  else  there  was  a more  or  less  con- 
stant temperature  which  was  not  allowed  to  go  below  40°  F. 
The  cold  cellars  were  always  unsatisfactory  and  much  greater 
losses  occurred  in  them  than  in  the  warmer  cellars.  A few  of 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


the  warmer  cellars  had  not  proved  satisfactory  but  the  main 
trouble  was  caused  by  light  entering  the  cellars.  This  always 
causes  the  bees  to  be  more  or  less  active  if  the  temperature  is 
high  in  the  cellar. 

If  bees  in  storage  are  kept  in  absolute  darkness  and  the  tem- 
perature is  held  at  a constant  range  of  from  45°  to  50°  F. 
the  size , shape , or  location  of  the  cellar  makes  little  difference. 

Bees  stored  in  basements  with  a furnace  invariably  winter 
better  than  bees  in  outside  cellars  where  no  artificial  heat  is  pro- 
vided. 

Cellars  having  no  artificial  heat  or  special  insulation  should  be 
completely  below  ground  and  the  ceiling  below  the  frost  line. 
At  the  same  time  the  top  of  the  cellar  should  be  well  insulated 
from  penetration  of  cold  from  above. 

The  entrance  to  the  cellar  should  be  through  a vestibule.  Both 
the  inside  and  outside  doors  should  be  padded  and  fitted  so  that 
the  cold  cannot  penetrate  into  the  cellar. 

It  is  a good  plan  to  build  the  workhouse  over  the  cellar  and 
to  fill  in  between  the  floor  and  the  ceiling  of  the  cellar  with 
shavings  or  sawdust.  A complete  layer  of  a good  grade  roofing 
paper  under  the  packing  material  will  help  protect  the  ceiling 
if  it  is  made  of  wood.  The  packing  material  should  be  absolute- 
ly dry  when  put  in  place. 

The  size  of  the  cellar  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  number 
of  colonies  it  is  to  hold.  For  example,  if  10-frame  Langstroth 
hives  are  used,  a space  18  inches  by  24  inches  should  be  allowed 
for  each  tier  of  hives  and  a distance  of  3 feet  between  rows, 
A cellar  8 feet  by  10  feet  and  7 feet  high  will  accommodate  50 
to  60  hives  without  crowding.  A cellar  14  feet  by  16  feet  and 
7 feet  high  will  hold  150  colonies  without  serious  crowding  and 
200  if  necessary. 

Permanent  benches  of  hive  stands  10  inches  high  and  strong 
enough  to  hold  tiers  of  4 or  5 colonies  should  be  provided  in  the 
cellar. 

Temperature  and  Humidity  in  the  Bee  Cellar 

The  temperature  at  which  bees  winter  best  is  still  a matter  of 
dispute.  Many  practical  beekeepers  attempt  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature at  about  50°  F.  Others  claim  that  this  is  too  high  and 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


15 


that  the  bees  become  restless  when  the  temperature  goes  above 
45°  F.  Perhaps  the  reason  for  this  disagreement  is  that  other 
factors  necessary  for  successful  wintering  have  been  ignored 
by  those  who  favor  the  lower  temperatures. 

During  the  winter  seasons  of  1917-1918  and  1918-1919  care- 
ful records  of  temperature  and  humidity  were  made  in  the  Uni- 
versity bee  cellar.  The  cellar  has  steam  pipes  running  through 
it  and  a large  ventilator  entering  from  the  outside,  while  a 
smaller  ventilator  connects  the  cellar  with  a warm  room  above. 


FIG.  4.— CONTINUOUS  ROW  PACKING 

Every  other  hive  faces  in  the  same  direction;  alternate  hives  face 
In  the  opposite  direction.  A beekeeper  of  Antig-o,  Wisconsin,  has  win- 
tered his  bees  successfully  in  this  type  of  winter  case  for  a number 
of  years. 

The  walls  are  of  solid  stone  built  completely  below  ground.  In 
this  cellar  it  is  possible  to  get  a temperature  of  more  than  60° 
F.  and  a practically  constant  temperature  of  50°  F.  or  lower 
can  be  secured  by  regulating  the  cold  air  intake  and  the  outdraft 
leading  from  the  cellar.  In  1917-1918  the  bees  wintered  in  per- 
fect condition. 

The  temperature  was  kept  as  near  50°  F.  as  possible  except 
when  it  was  allowed  to  fluctuate  to  show  the  effect  on  the  bees. 
Only  twice  during  the  winter  was  the  temperature  allowed  to 
go  below  40°  F.  Both  times  the  covers  were  lifted  from  several 
hives  and  the  bees  were  found  clustered  in  a compact  mass.  The 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


temperature  was  then  allowed  to  go  to  47°  F.  with  the  result 
that  the  cluster  was  but  slightly  spread  out.  Even  at  50°  F. 
it  was  much  more  compact  than  was  anticipated.  Contrary  to 
expectations  the  cluster  was  not  broken  when  the  temperature 
was  run  up  to  58°  F.  At  57°  F.  in  the  bee  cellar  the  cluster 
was  expanded  in  size  and  a few  bees  were  found  wandering 
about  but  the  clusters  were  not  broken.  Even  at  60°  F.  there 
was  no  noticeable  change. 

During  fourteen  of  the  entire  nineteen  weeks  that  the  bees 
were  in  the  cellar  the  temperature  varied  between  45°  and  58° 
F.  From  December  26  to  30  the  temperature  did  not  go  below 
50°  F.  but  ran  as  high  as  57°  F.  From  January  17  to  30  the 
thermometer  dropped  to  46°  F.  for  three  hours ; the  remainder 
of  the  time  it  varied  from  50°  to  56°  F.  From  March  18  to 
April  10  the  thermometer  dropped  once  to  49°  F.  and  only 
twice  to  50°  F.  for  a few  hours.  The  remainder  of  the  time 
it  varied  between  51°  and  57°  F.  The  average  humidity  for 
the  entire  period  was  about  72  per  cent.  * 

The  bees  were  observed  daily  but  showed  very  little  activity 
except  that  as  the  temperature  varied  the  cluster  contracted 
and  expanded  more  or  less.  Not  only  did  full  colonies  winter 
in  excellent  condition  but  six  very  weak  colonies,  none  of  which 
contained  as  much  as  a pound  of  bees,  wintered  over  and  were 
built  up  into  strong  colonies  the  following  season. 

That  not  a single  comb  showed  any  signs  of  mildew,  which 
commonly  occurs  in  cellars  where  the  temperature  is  lower,  was 
another  important  fact  noted. 

Therefore  50°  F. . is  not  too  high  for  the  cellar  temperature 
and  if  the  bees  leave  the  hive  in  the  cellar  some  other  cause 
must  be  looked  for.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  not  been  proved 
that  bees  will  not  winter  as  well  at  45°  F.  However,  the  losses 
are  much  greater  in  colder  cellars  than  in  the  warmer  ones  and 
bees  kept  in  basements  containing  a furnace  winter  much  better 
than  those  in  cellars  where  no  artificial  heat  is  provided. 

With  a few  exceptions,  Wisconsin  beekeepers  who  have  the 
lowest  winter  losses  keep  the  temperature  at  from  45°  F.  to 
50°  F. 

If  the  temperature  is  kept  at  50°  F.  bees  are  not  greatly 
affected  by  changes  in  humidity  although  the  importance  of  hu- 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


17 


midity  in  the  cellar  and  its  effect  on  the  bees  is  not  well  under- 
stood. 

A cold  cellar  is  always  damp ; and  whenever  the  temperature 
is  allowed  to  go  below  freezing  a certain  amount  of  frost  and 
even  ice  will  be  formed  on  the  underside  of  the  cover  outside 
the  space  around  the  cluster.  Under  these  conditions,  bees 
must  use  an  extra  amount  of  energy  to  keep  up  the  cluster  tem- 
perature. If  the  bees  were  old  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter 


FIG.  5.— A SINGLE  COLONY  WINTER  CASE 

This  case  allows  for  six  inches  of  packing-  all  around  and  has  been 
used  with  great  success  for  many  years  in  the  Eskill  yard  at  Iron 
Mountain,  Michigan. 

they  may  not  have  sufficient  strength  to  build  up  the  colony  in 
the  spring.  Giving  the  bees  good  protection  means  saving  both 
stores  and  energy  for  spring  development. 

Ventilation  of  the  Bee  Cellar 

Do  bees  need  fresh  air  in  the  bee  cellar?  If  so,  how  much 
and  why?  Beekeepers  have  tried  for  a long  time  to  regulate 
the  health  of  bees  in  the  cellar  by  fresh  air — perhaps  because  it 
is  considered  necessary  for  higher  animals.  The  oxygen  needs 
of  insects  and  warm-blooded  animals  cannot  be  adequately  com- 
pared, however,  because  of  their  great  difference  in  body  struc- 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


ture  and  in  their  method  of  getting  oxygen  from  the  air.  Bees 
should  only  be  compared  with  other  insects ; and  since  it  has  often 
been  shown  that  insects  may  live  indefinitely  in  air-tight  con- 
tainers there  is  little  chance  for  comparison.  Even  when  the 
actual  oxygen  needs  of  bees  become  known  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
of  practical  importance  to  the  beekeeper.  Furthermore,  it  is 
not  likely  that  there  is  a bee  cellar  existing  that  does  not  have 
sufficient  air  passing  through  it  for  all  the  needs  of  the  bees. 

It  is  a mistake  to  believe  that  bees  need  speoial  ventilation  in 
the  bee  cellar  to  give  them  air.  In  fact,  most  systems  of  ven- 
tilation provided  are  more  harmful  than  otherwise,  because  they 
lower  the  temperature  of  the  bee  cellar.  It  has  been  quite  no- 
ticeable among  the  bee  cellars  visited  during  these  investigations 
that  in  every  cellar  where  extreme  ventilation  was  given  the 
winter  losses  were  always  heavy,  and  in  cellars  where  no  ven- 
tilation whatever  was  provided  the  bees  wintered  well  nearly 
every  year.  In  years  when  the  bees  did  not  do  so  well  the  bee- 
keepers all  agreed  that  it  was  due  to  the  poor  quality  of  stores. 

A Vernon  county  beekeeper  has  two  cellars,  one  with  no  ven- 
tilation and  the  other  arranged  so  that  ventilation  can  be  given 
in  the  spring  should  the  bees  become  restless  before  putting  them 
on  the  summer  stands.  He  gives  the  bees  no  extra  ventilation 
during  the  winter  and  finds  that  bees  winter  equally  well  in  each 
of  these  cellars.  He  reports  that  his  winter  losses  are  very  small 
except  for  the  winter  1919-1920  when  he  lost  30  colonies  out  of 
140  by  starvation.  He  has  wintered  successfully  180  colonies 
in  a cellar  12  feet  by  16  feet  and  8 feet  high. 

A Manitowoc  county  man  winters  his  bees  under  his  house. 
There  is  one  window  in  the  outside  wall  which  he  covers  up 
with  packing  and  does  not  open  until  spring. 

This  cellar  was  visited  on  March  6,  1919,  and  the  thermometer 
reading  was  48°  F.  The  bees  were  in  excellent  condition  at 
that  time,  showed  no  signs  of  being  restless,  and  were  not  suffer- 
ing from  dysentery.  This  does  not  mean  that  bee  cellars  should 
be  built  without  some  means  of  ventilation,  for  it  may  be  necessary 
to  have  ventilation  in  order  to  cool  the  cellar  if  the  temperature 
gets  too  high. 

It  also  may  be  found  advisable  to  have  some  means  of  lower- 
ing the  temperature  near  the  end  of  the  season  to  prevent  bees 
that  are  suffering  from  dysentery  coming  out  in  the  cellar.  This 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


19 


is  not  a cure  but  a possible  way  to  hold  the  bees  in  the  hive  an 
extra  week  or  two  until  they  can  be  set  out-of-doors.  Bees  that 
show  dysentery  early  in  the  winter  cannot  be  saved  by  lowering 
the  temperature;  and  the  presence  of  these  bees  in  the  hive 
causes  a serious  disturbance  among  those  in  better  condition. 
The  lower  temperature  causes  the  consumption  of  more  stores 
and  greater  activity  which  only  increases  the  trouble. 

In  place  of  ventilation,  give  the  bees  good  stores,  keep  them 
in  a warm  cellar,  and  put  them  away  about  November  20. 

Moisture  running  out  of  the  hives  is  due  to  low  temperatures 
and  excess  consumption  of  stores.  Ventilation  will  not  help  un- 
less the  cellar  temperature  can  be  held  at  45°  to  50°  F. 

Putting  the  Bees  in  the  Cellar 

Beekeepers  differ  greatly  in  their  opinions  as  to  the  proper 
time  for  putting  bees  in  the  cellar,  but  usually  they  wish  to 
wait  until  after  the  bees  have  had  their  last  flight  which  keeps 
them  out  until  Thanksgiving  or  longer.  This  is  a very  bad  prac- 
tice as  a rule,  for  too  often  the  last  flight  never  comes.  If  full 
advantage  of  the  bee  cellar  is  to  be  taken,  the  bees  should  not 
have  to  remain  out-of-doors  for  two  or  three  weeks  of  very 
severe  weather  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  confinement. 
Our  observations  show  that  bees  may  safely  take  a flight  on  a 
sunny  day  when  the  temperature  is  48°  F.  in  the  shade.  They 
do  not  normally  fly  on  cloudy  days,  at  much  higher  temperatures. 
Bees  in  the  shade  will  not  normally  fly  at  48°  F. 

A comparison  of  the  weather  records  for  the  past  ten  years 
shows  that  on  this  basis  bees  had  suitable  weather  conditions  for 
a flight  after  the  first  of  December  only  three  years  of  the  ten; 
the  latest  dates  were  December  4,  1913,  and  December  13  in 
1920.  During  the  same  period  the  bees  might  have  had  a flight 
only  five  times  after  November  20  and  three  of  these  years  were 
the  same  as  for  the  December  flights.  In  1915,  a suitable  day 
for  a flight  did  not  occur  after  November  13. 

If  the  weather  is  warm  during  the  fall  and  up  to  the  last  of 
November  the  bees  are  likely  to  have  a day  suitable  for  a flight 
near  December  1.  But  if  there  is  a heavy  snowfall  in  October 
or  about  the  first  of  November  there  is  likely  to  be  no  opportun- 
ity for  the  bees  to  fly  after  November  20.  It  is  quite  evident 


20 


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then  that  bees  have  only  a slight  chance  for  a cleansing  flight 
in  December  and  less  than  half  a chance  after  November  20. 
For  this  reason  the  beekeeper  should  plan  to  put  the  bees  in 
the  cellar  not  later  than  November  20  except  in  seasons  where 
little  or  no  snow  has  fallen  previous  to  that  date.  Following 
that  period  the  bees  should  be  put  in  the  cellar  with  the  first 
snow  storm. 

The  season  of  1920  was  far  from  normal  and  bees  might 
have  been  left  out-of-doors  until  December  20.  However,  bees 
in  the  cellar  previous  to  that  time  were  in  no  need  of  a flight; 
and  bees  in  outdoor  cases  did  not  fly  to  any  great  extent. 

Bees  well  protected  behind  a imndbreak  and  with  tight  outside 
covers  lined  with  felt  or  paper  may  be  left  out-of-doors  until 
after  the  first  of  December. 


PUTTING  THE  BEES  OUT  IN  THE  SPRING 

The  time  when  bees  should  be  set  out  in  the  spring  is  gen- 
erally based  upon  the  blooming  of  the  willows;  the  majority  of 
Wisconsin  beekeepers  plan  to  remove  the  bees  between  April 
1 and  April  15.  A few  beekeepers  remove  the  bees  as  soon  as 
the  snow  disappears. 

If  the  bees  are  given  no  outside  protection  the  time  of  their 
removal  from  the  cellar  should  be  governed  by  their  condition. 
If  they  are  not  restless  nor  suffering  from  dysentery  they  should 
be  kept  in  the  cellar  until  April  10  unless  the  weather  is  warm 
enough  for  the  bees  to  fly.  If  bees  are  protected  by  a wind- 
break and  outside  covers  they  may  be  taken  out  the  latter  part 
of  March. 


The  fundamentals  of  spring  care  to  get  large  col- 
onies by  the  time  of  the  honey  flow  are : Bees  to  begin 
with;  protection  during  April  and  May;  large  amounts 
of  stores ; and  not  less  than  two  hive  bodies  for  spring 
brood  rearing. 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


21 


Here  again  the  weather  records  of  the  past  ten  years  indicate 
how  early  the  bees  may  be  removed  with  advantage.  Bees  should 
not  be  taken  out  while  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow.  During 
the  eight  of  the  last  ten  years  the  temperature  was  high  enough 
at  Madison  so  that  the  bees  could  have  had  a cleansing  flight 
between  March  10  and  15  if  the  snow  had  been  melted  away. 
However,  the  snow  does  not  usually  disappear  before  March 
15  and  after  that  time  a suitable  day  for  a flight  is  not  likely 
to  occur  before  March  23.  Practically  every  year  a warm  spell 
occurs  between  March  22  and  26  so  that  if  the  bees  need  a 


FIG.  6. — AN  IDEAL  CASE  FOR  SPRING  PROTECTION 

The  Schmidt  packing  case,  which  allows  only  two  inches  of  pack- 
ing, has  been  used  with  considerable  success  in  Sheboygan  County. 

flight  they  may  be  set  out  March  20  or  sooner,  with  the  assur- 
ance that  they  will  be  able  to  fly  within  a few  days.  In  one 
year  out  of  ten  they  may  be  able  to  fly  before  March  10.  During 
the  period  studied  there  was  one  year  when  a flight  was  not  pos- 
sible until  March  26. 

If  bees  are  known  to  be  short  of  stores  they  should  be  set 
out  during  the  warm  spell  in  March  and  given  an  abundance  of 
sugar  syrup  to  carry  them  over  until  the  time  when  they  can 
gather  nectar  in  the  field. 

Spring  Preparation  for  the  Honey  Flow 

Very  few  beekeepers  realize  how  important  it  is  to  give  the 
bees  exactly  the  right  care  from  March  to  June.  Many  feel 
that  they  have  done  their  best  if  the  bees  come  through  the  win- 
ter successfully  and  that  success  or  failure  depends  upon  the 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


season  to  follow.  But  what  of  the  one  or  two  beekeepers  in 
the  neighborhood  who  secured  a part  of  a crop  although  all 
others  failed?  Did  the  successful  ones  give  the  bees  the  needed 
care  in  the  spring? 

It  is  so  easy  to  provide  protection  and  sufficient  stores  and 
the  good  results  are  so  well  known  among  practical  beekeepers 
that  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  understand  why  90  per  cent  of  our 
beekeepers  simply  set  the  bees  out-of-doors  in  the  spring  and 
leave  them  to  build  up  as  best  they  can.  Protection  and  a large 


FIG.  7.— ROOFING  PAPER  PUT  ON  LIKE  THIS  GIVES  LITTLE 

PROTECTION 

Covering:  the  hives  in  this  way  is  sometimes  recommended  for  spring 
protection  but  unless  the  roofing  completely  covers  the  hive  and  is 
tightly  fixed  all  around  the  bottom  it  does  little  good. 

amount  of  stores  are  fully  as  important  in  the  spring  as  during 
the  winter  and  perhaps  more  so. 

During  the  winter  the  temperature  surrounding  the  cluster 
will  be  held  at  57°  F.  as  long  as  the  bees  have  stores  and  energy 
to  live,  regardless  of  the  cold  outside.  During  the  time  the  tem- 
perature may  go  below  the  zero  point  for  short  periods  but  it 
will  range  mostly  from  20°  F.  or  higher.  The  bees  then  need 
to  develop  only  an  approximate  average  of  forty  heat  units.  In 
addition,  they  are  not  at  that  time  required  to  use  energy  in  the 
production  of  wax  and  food  for  the  young. 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


23 


As  soon  as  brood  rearing  starts  in  the  spring  the  temperature 
inside  the  cluster  and  around  the  young  brood  is  increased  to 
93°  to  95°  F.  At  the  same  time  the  temperature  in  the  northern 
states  will  average  about  40°  F.  with  fluctuations  during  March 
and  April  up  to  65°  F.  Under  those  conditions  the  bees  are 
forced  to  produce  enough  energy  to  keep  the  temperature  up  to 
that  of  brood  rearing,  a difference  of  30  to  60  heat  units.  During 
that  time  an  excess  of  energy  is  also  being  used  to  produce  a 
larval  food  and  possibly  other  products. 


First  Period  of  Winter  Care 

(September  1 to  November  20) 

1.  Every  colony  should  have  a young  queen  not  more 
than  two  years  old,  whose  maximum  egg  laying  period 
has  not  been  reached. 

2.  Provide  plenty  of  good  stores  and  allow  the  bees 
to  arrange  their  own  brood  nest. 

3.  See  that  the  bees  are  well  protected  and  sheltered 
from  the  prevailing  winds. 

4.  All  feeding  should  be  done  before  the  first  of  No- 
vember before  cold  nights  prevail. 


Second  Period  of  Winte  Care 
(November  20  to  March  21) 

1.  Bees  should  not  be  disturbed  during  this  period. 

2.  Bees  in  storage  should  be  in  absolute  darkness  and 
the  temperature  . of  the  bee  cellar  held  at  a constant 
range  of  45°  to  50°  F. 

3.  Excessive  amounts  of  moisture  will  not  be  appar- 
ent if  the  proper  temperatures  are  maintained. 

4.  Ventilation  of  the  bee  cellar  is  likely  to  do  more 
harm  than  good. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


A practical  illustration  of  how  temperature  influences  the  de- 
velopment of  brood  in  the  spring  may  be  demonstrated  by 
watching  three  colonies  of  minimum,  medium,  and  maximum 
strength.  By  May  the  weak  colony  will  have  only  a small  circle 
of  brood  indicating  the  inside  space  covered  by  the  cluster. 
This  will  also  be  more  or  less  true  of  the  medium  colony,  but 
the  area  of  the  brood  nest  will  extend  beyond  the  ordinary  win- 
ter-clustering space.  In  the  strong  colony,  the  brood  nest  will 
be  several  times  larger  than  the  winter  clustering  space  and  sev- 
eral frames  may  be  filled  from  end  to  end. 

That  strong  colonies  in  the  spring  are  able  to  build  up  strong 
for  the  honey  flow  is,  of  course,  a recognized  fact.  Few  bee- 
keepers, however,  have  carried  on  trials  with  protected  and  un- 
protected colonies  having  extra  brooding  space  and  more  stores 
than  seemed  necessary.  When  this  is  done  the  results  are  re- 
markable. A lack  of  such  demonstrations  is  the  principal  reason 
why  beekeepers  who  have  tried  packing  the  bees  out-of-doors 
have  concluded  that  outdoor  packing  is  better  than  cellar  winter- 
ing. The  cellar  wintering  was  not  at  fault,  however,  but  the 
fact  that  the  bees  wintered  out-of-doors  had  spring  protection 
made  it  appear  so.  In  the  northern  states  the  bees  are  often 
removed  from  the  cellar  and  placed  in  exposed  locations  where 
the  north  and  west  winds  sweep  over  them  causing  a fall  in  tem- 
perature outside  the  hive.  This  can  be  made  up  only  by  extra 
work  on  the  part  of  the  bees  and  the  use  of  energy  which  should 
be  conserved  for  a greater  expansion  of  the  brood  nest.  When- 
ever a cold,  wet  spring  occurs  the  bees  have  great  difficulty  in 
building  up  and  always  reach  the  honey  flow  in  poor  condition 
unless  protected. 

April  is  always  cold  and  the  night  temperatures  frequently 
drop  to  near  the  freezing  point.  Perhaps  there  are  only  a few 
days  when  the  bees  can  fly  and  in  that  case  it  is  said  that  bees 
were  unable  to  gather  pollen  and  nectar  and  could  not  build  up. 
This  condition  would  not  be  necessary  if  the  beekeeper  provided 
abundant  stores.  Bees  do  not  need  to  fly  more  than  three  or  four 
times  during  the  latter  part  of  March  and  April ; and  conditions 
without  the  hive  have  little  or  no  effect  on  the  development  of 
the  brood  if  conditions  are  right  within. 

There  is  also  considerable  evidence  to  show  that  too  much 
packing  in  the  spring  is  as  detrimental  as  heavy  winter  pack- 


Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin 


25 


ing.  If  the  packing  is  too  heavy,  the  heat  of  the  sun  does  not 
penetrate  to  the  hive ; and  the  bees  do  not  come  out  and  fly  dur- 
ing the  few  days  that  are  warm  enough  for  a flight. 

Some  Wisconsin  beekeepers  who  have  been  content  with  one 
hive  body  full  of  bees  at  the  honey  flow  have  been  amazed  to 
find,  during  the  past  two  years,  that  they  could  get  two  10-frame 
hive  bodies  full  of  bees  and  from  12  to  17  frames  with  brood 
at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  flow  by  following  these  spring 
practices.  In  late  May,  1920,  two  beekeepers  actually  had  most 
of  the  colonies  in  two  10-frame  bodies  with  more  bees  than 
could  get  into  the  hive.  We  do  not  put  two  bodies  on  when 
the  bees  are  first  set  out  but  wait  until  6 or  8 frames  contain 
brood  and  then  the  second  hive  body  is  placed  on  top.  As  soon 
as  the  queen  lacks  space  below,  she  goes  up  if  the  upper  body 
is  packed  and  warm.  In  spite  of  evidence  to  the  contrary  she 
will  go  down  again  when  everything  is  filled  above. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  338 


Third  Period  of  Winter  Care 

(March  20  to  May  15) 

1.  Place  the  bees  in  a location  where  they  will  posi- 
tively be  protected  from  a direct  wind.  Provide  some 
kind  of  a windbreak. 

2.  If  colonies  of  maximum  strength  are  desired  at  the 
beginning  of  the  honey  flow,  provide  every  colony  with 
some  outside  covering  or  packing  as  soon  as  the  bees  are 
put  on  their  summer  stands. 

3.  Provide  every  colony  with  more  stores  than  you 
think  it  can  use  during  April  and  May.  If  you  do  not 
have  combs  of  honey,  feed  sugar  syrup.  Give  40  to  50 
pounds  because,  as  a rule,  10  to  20  pounds  is  about  half 
enough.  The  strong  colony  will  need  from  7 5 to  100 
pounds  of  stores  to  build  up  during  the  spring,  and  if 
the  bees  cannot  get  it  in  the  field  the  beekeeper  must 
supply  it. 

4.  Bees  must  have  brooding  room  and  the  beekeeper 
who  has  swarms  in  May  should  not  be  proud  of  the 
fact,  for  it  is  a sure  sign  of  neglect  in  one  way  or  an- 
other. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  op  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
P.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten 

sion  Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 

Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 
B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 


H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  S'WENEHart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husandry 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Carver,  Genetics 

A.  L.  DuRant,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  W.  Heal,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 
C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  D.  Samuels,  Soils 

E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Stevens,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  N.  Stroman,  Genetics 

M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 

C.  W.  Weber,  Veterinary  Science 
J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


— 


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CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword  3 

Johne’s  Disease  Causes  Long-Continued  Losses 5 

Tuberculosis  in  Farm  Animals 8 

Contagious  Abortion 13-15 

Factors  Influencing  Growth  and  Inoculation  of  Legumes 17-20 

Spoilage  of  Evaporated  Milk 23-25 

Whey  Butter  Versus  Milk  Butter 27 

Cheese  Yields  and  Cheese  Factory  Payments 29 

Wheat  Scab  Influenced  by  Climate 32-36 

Control  of  Apple  Scab  and  Cherry  Leaf  Spot 38-39 

Anthracnose  of  Black  Raspberries 41 

Weather  and  Plant  Diseases 45-48 

Insects  Eat  Profits  From  Farmers’  Income 49-53 

Pea  Moth  Threatens  Dry  Pea  Industry 53 

Bees  and  Honey  on  the  Increase  in  Wisconsin 54-56 

Potato  Leaf  Hopper  Causes  Hopperburn 56 

New  Nicotine  Dusts 59 

The  Producer  Needs  Economics 62 

Cost  of  Milk  Production 63 

The  Agricultural  Neighborhood 67 

Drainage  Districts  Studied 68 

Land  Clearing  Investigations 70-73' 

Which  Plants  Feed  Best  on  Phosphate  and  Potassium 74 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Sandy  Soils 78 

Fertilizer  Work  on  Light  Soil  at  Spooner 80-82 

Rotations  for  Superior  Sandy  Loam 82 

Treatment  of  Colby  Silt  Loam  at  the  Marshfield  Station 83 

Coddington  Branch  Station  Works  With  Marsh  Soils 85 

Alfalfa,  the  Soil  Improver 87 

Soybeans  for  Light  Soils 89 

Sudan  and  Sudan-Soybean  Mixture 91 

Canadian  Yellow  Sweet  Clover  a Success 93 

Trials  With  Hubam  Sweet  Clover 94 

Kudzu  May  Prove  New  Forage  Plant 94 

Sunflowers  for  Silage 96-101 

Cold  Resistant  Golden  Glow  Continues  Successful 102 

Early  Oats  Prove  Best  in  1921 104 

Breeding  Spring  and  Winter  Wheats 106 

Hemp  Remains  the  Important  Fiber  Crop  for  Wisconsin 108 

Fiber  Flax  Seed  Growing Ill 

Breeding  More  Syrup  Into  Sorghum 112 

Breeding  to  Prevent  Barley  Stripe  Disease 113 

Breeding  for  Oil  in  Soybeans 114 

More  Wisconsin-Grown  Sweet  Corn 114-116 

Experiments  Show  Inbreeding  Effects 117 

“White  Ration”  Helped  by  Dried  Pork  Liver 119 

Do  Swine  Need  Roughage? 121 

Stability  of  the  Anti-scorbutic  Vitamine 123 

Importance  of  Plenty  of  Lime  for  Stock 124 

Yellow  Versus  White  Corn  for  Stock  Feeding 126 

Home-Grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 129 

Studies  of  Vitamines 131 

Hydrolyzed  Sawdust  for  Dairy  Cows 133 

Relationship  of  Vitamines  to  Use  of  Lime 135 


New  Pages  in  Farming 

H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison 

In  1921  the  farming  industry  suffered  the  severest  depres- 
sion which  has  occurred  in  a generation.  The  sudden  defla- 
tion which  began  in  the  summer  of  the  preceding  year  and 
culminated  in  1921  was  made  more  prominent  by  reason  of  the 
inflation  in  prices  which  had  taken  place  during  and  imme- 
diately after  the  war.  The  situation  in  which  the  farmer  now 
finds  himself,  in  common  with  all  other  producers  of  raw 
materials,  whether  of  food,  fuel,  shelter,  or  clothing,  is  that 
the  commodities  which  he  has  to  sell  have  gone  down  in  price 
much  more  than  the  finished  products  which  he  has  to  buy. 
Readjustments  in  prices  following  the  period  of  war  inflation 
were  inevitable  but  the  quicker  this  change  is  effected  on  all  sides 
the  better  it  will  be,  for  if  deflation  is  more  pronounced  with 
one  class  of  producers  than  with  another,  the  equilibrium  of 
exchange  is  disturbed.  The  progress  of  one  is  then  impeded 
with  reference  to  the  other ; for  after  all,  prices  are  only  the 
index  of  exchange  values  of  labor. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  relative  price  of  farm  products  has 
reached  its  lowest  level,  but  whether  that  is  so  or  not,  this 
outstanding  fact  remains — the  agriculture  of  tomorrow  must 
more  than  ever  utilize  the  findings  of  more  scientific  methods 
of  conducting  our  farming  operations.  When  the  margins  be- 
tween costs  of  production  and  crop  returns  are  wide,  less  care 
is  likely  to  be  exercised  in  applying  all  of  those  methods  which 
cut  out  waste,  eliminate  leaks  and  losses,  and  consequently 
lower  costs  of  production.  Profitable  farming  in  the  future 
must  more  than  ever  utilize  to  the  fullest  all  practicable  meas- 
ures to  cut  not  only  costs  of  production  but  costs  of  distribu- 
ion  as  well,  for  unless  farming  can  be  made  profitable  and  can 
insure  a reasonable  living  standard,  why  should  it  expect  to 
attract  some  of  our  best  young  men  and  women. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Wisconsin’s  farming  methods  differ  from  much  of  Ameri- 
can agriculture  in  that  home  ownership  of  the  smaller  sized 
land  holdings  permits  of  more  individual  effort  than  the  factory 
methods  of  the  more  extensive  and  exploitive  systems  of  agri- 
culture. With  this  more  direct  individual  oversight  comes 
the  greater  opportunity  for  utilization  of  better  methods,  for 
as  a class,  the  farm  owners  and  husbandmen  show  a greater 
willingness  to  adopt  such  practices  than  the  tenant  farmer. 


FIG.  1.— JOHNE’S  disease  works  slowly 

While  gradual  emaciation,  roughened  hair  coat,  and  diarrhea  are 
not  positive  external  symptoms  of  this  disease  they  are  indicative  of  the 
infection,  but  Johnin,  a test  agent  similar  to  tuberculin,  must  be  used 
positively  to  identify  the  malady. 

Never  were  the  results  of  our  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions more  needed  than  they  will  be  in  these  days  of  readjust- 
ment. Never  was  there  a greater  obligation  resting  upon  them 
so  to  order  their  activities  as  to  aid  most  effectively  the  needs 
of  those  whom  they  were  designed  to  serve. 

The  following  pages  summarize  in  briefest  outline  the  more 
important  findings  of  the  year.  The  results  that  have  been 
fully  completed  are  published  in  bulletin  form  or  in  the  agri- 
cultural press,  but  this  report  aims  to  show  the  general  prog- 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


5 


ress  of  the  year  in  other  experimental  endeavors,  the  data  of 
which  have  not  as  yet  been  given  to  the  public. 

Johne’s  Disease  Causes  Long-Continued  Losses 

For  several  years  E.  G.  Hastings  (Agricultural  Bacteriol- 
ogy) and  B.  A.  Beach  (Veterinary  Science)  have  been  col- 
lecting information  concerning  the  elusive  Johne’s  disease, 
sometimes  called  chronic  dysentery.  It  is  of  so  much  import- 
ance that  Dr.  Bang  of  Copenhagen  stated,  “The  future  of  one 
of  the  most  important  breeds  of  cattle  in  Denmark  depends 
upon  the  ability  to  eliminate  Johne’s  disease.”  Several  years 
of  experience  have  shown  that  this  disease  is  more  prevalent 
than  has  been  supposed,  especially  among  purebred  animals, 
and  that  it  is  spreading  rather  rapidly  through  the  transfer  of 
animals  from  herd  to  herd. 

In  four  herds  which  have  been  under  observation  by  the  Col- 
lege for  a number  of  years,  the  yearly  loss  has  been  from  2 to 
12  per  cent.  One  herd  of  50  lost  during  17  years,  41  animals 
infected  with  the  disease.  Another  herd  numbering  18  replaced 
22  animals  in  10  years. 

It  seems  altogether  probable  that  animals  are  being  removed 
from  many  herds  because  of  Johne’s  disease  without  its  real 
nature  being  recognized.  The  slow  development,  the  incon- 
stancy of  the  most  marked  symptoms,  diarrhea,  and  the 
gradual  loss  of  flesh  by  the  animal,  are  not  likely  to  cause  the 
stockman  to  suspect  the  presence  of  a transmissible  disease  in 
his  herd.  The  animal  will  ordinarily  be  sold  for  slaughter 
and  the  cause  of  its  decline  passed  unrecognized.  Again  the 
slow  spread  of  the  disease  in  a herd  disguises  its  transmis- 
sible nature  and  makes  it  difficult  to  estimate  the  losses  from 
it.  Another  dangerous  factor  of  the  disease  is  that  it  is  un- 
known to  many  veterinarians  and  therefore  passes  unrecog- 
nized. It  is  difficult  to  grow  Johne’s  disease  organisms  upon 
cultures,  and  at  present  it  is  very  difficult  to  prepare  large 
amounts  of  Johnin,  the  diagnostic  agent  used  in  detecting  the 
disease.  The  opportunity  finally  came  to  the  College  in  June, 
1917,  to  test  a known-infected  herd  with  the  detecting  agent. 
This  test,  never  before  conducted  by  the  use  of  Johnin  in  the 
United  States,  was  the  first  test  of  an  entire  herd  ever  made, 
so  far  as  we  are  able  to  learn.  Johnin  is  injected  into  the 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


jugular  vein,  and  the  reaction  in  the  case  of  affected  animals 
follows  quickly,  showing,  in  addition  to  a higher  temperature 
from  five  to  seven  hours  after  the  injection  (103°-104°  in  25 
per  cent  and  104°-105°  in  40  per  cent  of  the  cases),  other  con- 
stitutional reactions.  The  majority  of  infected  cattle  exhibit 
a roughened  hair  coat  from  thirty  minutes  to  four  hours  fol- 
lowing the  intravenous  injection;  and  at  any  time  between  the 
fourth  and  the  twenty-fourth  hours  following  the  administra- 


Typical  curves  show  the  rapid  rise  in  temperature  after  injection 
of  the  diagnostic  agent,  Johnin. 

tion  of  Johnin,  approximately  25  per  cent  of  infected  cattle 
exhibit  a marked  softening  of  the  feces.  Diarrhea  accom- 
panied by  a foul  odor  is  often  noticed ; and  muscular  tremors 
and  hard  breathing  may  also  occur.  Three  instances  out  of 
approximately  one  thousand  cattle  tested  showed  severe  reac- 
tions, and  one  animal  where  symptoms  of  Johne’s  disease  had 
been  shown  for  about  two  months  fell  prostrate  one  minute 
after  the  injection  of  Johnin.  She  remained  in  an  unconscious 
condition  for  several  minutes,  her  temperature  was  99°,  and 
the  pulse  was  fast  and  weak;  yet,  in  fifteen  minutes  she  had 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


7- 


sufficiently  recovered  to  be  able  to  regain  her  feet,  and  in  an 
hour  was  apparently  normal.  A post-mortem  revealed  the 
characteristic  lesions  and  the  specific  organisms  of  Johne’s  dis- 
ease. 

One  herd  of  forty-five  animals,  upon  which  most  work  has 
been  done,  had  been  infected  for  fourteen  years  previous  to 
the  time  investigation  started,  and  during  that  period  twenty 
animals  were  lost  because  of  the  disease.  Since  1917  tests 
have  been  made  twice  a year;  and,  although  in  June  and  Janu- 
ary, 1921,  no  reactors  were  found,  it  is  still  possible  that  in 
spite  of  such  negative  results  more  reactors  will  later  occur. 

Some  observations  have  been  made  on  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  disease  spreads  in  the  herd.  In  1910  three  animals 
were  introduced  into  a herd.  Two  of  them  showed  Johne’s 
disease  symptoms  in  1913.  The  disease  was  undoubtedly 
introduced  into  this  herd  by  these  animals,  for  during  the 
eight-year  period  from  1913  to  1921  fifteen  animals  have  been 
removed  because  of  the  disease.  Another  herd  became  infected 
in  1905  through  an  animal  which  at  that  time  showed  symp- 
toms. Two  years  later  another  animal  was  disposed  of 
because  of  marked  symptoms,  and  in  1909  six  animals 
were  removed  from  the  herd  because  they  were  in  the  last 
stages  of  the  disease.  No  other  cases  developed  till  May,  1916, 
when  two  animals  were  removed,  but  between  June,  1918,  and 
January  1st,  1919,  five  clinical  cases  developed  and  the  animals 
were  sold.  During  January,  1920,  the  herd  was  first  tested, 
and  seven  reacting  animals  were  removed ; while  in  December, 

1920,  the  test  detected  eleven  victims.  Six  of  these  were  re- 
moved from  the  herd,  and  the  remaining  five  retested  in  May, 

1921. 

Through  fighting  fire  with  fire,  work  has  been  carried  on, 
using  as  the  fire  fighter  the  diagnostic  agent,  Johnin,  a product 
prepared  by  the  use  of  the  specific  organism  of  the  disease  and 
comparable  to  tuberculin  in  its  action  on  infected  animals. 
From  the  results  thus  far  obtained,  the  hope  is  entertained  that 
Johne’s  disease  may  be  eliminated  from  infected  herds  by  the 
use  of  Johnin,  that  this  comparatively  elusive  but  contagious 
and  dangerous  malady  may  be  eliminated  if  a description  of 
its  symptoms  can  be  spread  and  veterinarians  generally  set 
about  to  eradicate  it. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


The  bacillus  was  isolated  on  nutrient  agar  which  contained 
human  tubercle  bacilli  and  to  which  sterile  blood  serum  had 
been  added.  After  several  months  of  incubation  two  tubes 
out  of  a large  number  showed  the  acid-fast  organisms  although 
the  growth  was  so  slight  that  from  the  macroscopic  appear- 
ance of  the  agar  it  was  difficult  to  observe  any  growth.  The 
growth  of  the  bacillus  is  very  erratic— at  one  time  being  ex- 
cellent, while  at  another  it  may  be  very  meager. 

In  order  to  secure  some  of  the  agent,  Johnin,  a liquid  me- 
dium was  used,  and  after  nine  months  incubation  it  was  appar- 
ent that  growth  had  occurred.  At  present  the  basal  portion 
of  the  medium  is  a broth  in  which  certain  non-pathogenic  acid- 
fast  organisms  have  grown. 

Requests  for  Johnin  have  been  received  from  New  York, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Washington,  and  Eng- 
land, and  from  practicing  veterinarians  in  this  state.  It  has 
been  impossible  to  meet  all  of  these  demands  because  of  the 
extreme  difficulty  encountered  in  growing  the  organism.  At 
present  enough  Johnin  is  on  hand  for  approximately  one  thou- 
sand tests.  The  present  supply  will  be  distributed  in  part  to 
workers  in  other  states  who  may  wish  to  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  test  through  its  use  on  herds  which  are  suspected  of 
being  infected  with  Johne’s  disease. 

Tuberculosis  in  Farm  Animals 

Yearly,  tuberculosis  is  taking  its  enormous  toll  from  the 
livestock  of  this  state.  Not  only  are  cattle  susceptible  to  it, 
but  hogs,  chickens,  and  even  horses  are  stricken  down  by  this 
malady.  Experiments  are  continually  in  progress  to  perfect 
present  methods  of  detection  and,  if  possible,  to  find  more 
effective  means  of  diagnosing  the  disease. 

Tuberculosis  in  Horses.  Although  horses  may  acquire 
tuberculosis,  so  far  only  eight  cases  have  been  reported  in 
America.  Accordingly,  when  the  disease  was  discovered  in  a 
Shetland  pony  kept  as  a children’s  pet  on  a farm  in  Walworth 
County,  F.  B.  Hadley  (Veterinary  Science)  and  Mr.  Beach  at- 
tempted to  identify  the  type  of  tuberculosis  found. 


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9 


Johne’s  Disease  Compared  to  Tuberculosis 

How  They  Agree 

1.  Causal  organisms  both  belong  to  the  acid-fast  group. 

2.  In  both  diseases  the  animal  may  show  extreme 
emaciation. 

3.  In  Johne’s  disease,  diarrhea  is  frequent;  in  tuber- 
culosis infrequent,  although  it  may  occur. 

4.  Both  diseases  are  chronic  in  nature. 

5.  Both  diseases  are  infectious  and  contagious. 

How  They  Differ 

1.  Johne’s  disease  is  located  in  the  intestinal  wall  and 
adjacent  lymph  glands — usually  a limited  area  of 
the  small  intestine.  Tuberculosis  may  affect  any 
organ  in  the  body  but  only  rarely  the  wall  of  the 
digestive  tract. 

2.  Post-mortem  lesions  in  tuberculosis  are  much  more 
prominent  than  in  Johne’s  disease.  Progress  of 
Johne’s  disease  in  individual  animals  is  usually 
somewhat  slower,  and  the  progress  in  the  herd  is 
much  slower  than  in  tuberculosis. 

3.  Nodules  are  never  found  as  a result  of  Johne’s  dis- 
ease infection,  lesions  are  confined  to  a thickening  of 
the  intestinal  wall ; while  in  tuberculosis  the  forma- 
tion of  nodules  is  one  of  the  important  character- 
istics. 

4.  As  far  as  is  known  Johne’s  disease  is  not  commun- 
icable to  man ; and  of  the  domestic  animals,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  are  the  only  ones  susceptible  to  it. 
Tuberculosis  affects  cattle,  swine,  poultry,  and 
rarely  horses,  dogs,  and  cats. 

5.  Practically  the  only  symptoms  exhibited  by  ani- 
mals infected  with  Johne’s  disease  are  emaciation 
and  intermittent  diarrhea;  in  tuberculosis  the 
symptoms  are  varied  depending  upon  the  organ  or 
organs  affected. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


This  pony  was  six  years  of  age  and  died  after  it  had  been  on 
the  farm  two  years.  The  farmer  who  had  raised  and  kept  her 
during  the  first  four  years  of  her  life  said  that  not  only  was  the 
dam  still  alive  and  healthy  but  that  none  of  her  other  progeny 
had  ever  shown  symptoms  of  the  disease.  The  pony  had 
never  been  fed  cow’s  milk,  but  tuberculosis  was  known  to  be 
present  in  the  dairy  cattle  on  the  farm  where  the  pony  died. 
Although  not  directly  associated  with  the  cattle,  the  infection 
could  easily  have  come  through  contaminated  feed  and  drink- 
ing water  in  common  troughs.  The  pony  was  sleek,  fat,  and  in 
the  best  of  health  until  the  early  summer  of  1920,  when  it 
began  to  lose  flesh  and  gradually  became  debilitated.  Even 
with  the  best  of  care,  feed,  and  medicinal  treatment  no  im- 
provement was  made,  and  the  pony  finally  died  on  December 
23. 

A post-mortem  examination  revealed  an  enormously  en- 
larged mesenteric  lymph  gland,  rather  ovoid  in  shape  and 
measuring  about  8 by  10  inches.  While  considerable  pus  was 
noticed  when  this  tumor  was  cut  open,  there  was  no  evidence 
of  calcification  as  is  usual  in  tuberculosis  of  cattle  and  hogs. 
Numerous  pea-sized  to  walnut-sized  nodules,  resembling  the 
“pearls”  of  bovine  tuberculosis,  were  observed  beneath  the 
serous  covering  of  the  neighboring  intestine,  the  abdominal 
wall,  and  the  diaphragm.  No  evidence  of  infection  was  ap- 
parent in  the  spleen  or  lungs. 

A microscopic  preparation  of  material  from  the  centers  of 
one  of  the  small  tubercles  was  made  and  stained  for  the  acid- 
fast  miscroorganisms  of  tuberculosis ; literally  hundreds  of 
tubercle  bacilli  were  revealed  by  the  microscope.  This  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  few  found  even  in  very  active  cases  in 
lesions  of  cattle  and  swine.  The  bacteria  were  rather  longer 
than  the  human  tubercle  bacillus  and  were  distinctly  nodu- 
lated. 

Inasmuch  as  the  organisms  seemed  to  resemble  avian  tuber- 
culosis, a cockerel  was  inoculated ; but  during  a period  of  eight 
weeks  it  showed  no  symptoms  of  disease,  and  upon  post- 
mortem examination  no  lesions  were  found.  Of  two  guinea 
pigs  similarily  treated,  one  died  and  the  other  was  killed,  both 
showing  the  characteristic  acid-fast  organisms  of  bovine  tuber- 
culosis. Three  rabbits  were  inoculated  with  the  cultures.  The 
first  rabbit  gradually  lost  weight  and  was  destroyed  ten  weeks 


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11 


after  the  inoculation,  but  it  was  impossible  to  demonstrate  the 
organism  microscopically.  The  two  other  rabbits  lost  weight 
and  finally  died,  showing  the  tubercular  lesions  in  lungs  and 
kidneys.  This  demonstrates  that  it  was  the  bovine  type  of 
tuberculosis  rather  than  either  the  human  or  avian  type  which 
caused  the  death  of  the  pony. 

Tuberculosis  in  Hogs.  A thorough  estimate  places  the  per- 
centage of  hogs  infected  in  Wisconsin  at  15,  although  the  dis- 
ease in  most  cases  is  not  discovered  until  after  slaughter.  Occa- 
sionally hogs  die  from  tuberculosis  and  when  they  do,  it  is 
important  to  recognize  the  cause  of  death  in  order  that  steps 
may  be  taken  to  control  the  disease  before  it  has  wrought 
further  havoc.  In  March,  1921,  two  hogs  belonging  to  the 
University  and  kept  at  the  swine  barn  died.  A careful  post- 
mortem, aided  by  the  miscroscope,  showed  that  these  deaths 
were  due  to  tuberculous  pneumonia.  As  there  were  120  hogs 
in  this  lot  of  feeders  and  they  were  ready  for  market,  it  was 
decided  to  slaughter  the  rest  of  them  at  once.  Post-mortem 
examination  by  the  federal  veterinary  inspector  at  the  packing 
company’s  plant  showed  that  34  per  cent  had  lesions  of  tuber- 
culosis. This,  in  turn,  suggested  the  desirability  of  applying 
the  tuberculin  test  to  the  breeding  herd  of  118  swine.  Six 
reacted  to  the  intradermic  test. 

Tuberculosis  in  Cattle.  An  interesting  experiment  to  detect 
tuberculosis  in  cattle  was  carried  out  by  feeding  their  excreta 
to  pigs.  It  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  locating  dis- 
eased herds  by  a system  of  tagging  all  hogs  sent  to  central 
markets  in  order  to  trace  them  to  the  farms  from  which  they 
originated  and  thus  find  the  affected  cattle. 

Tuberculin  Test  for  Fowls.  Mr.  Beach  and  J.  G.  Halpin 
(Poultry  Husbandry)  have  brought  to  a close  their  investiga- 
tion with  tuberculin  as  a means  of  diagnosing  tuberculosis 
and  eradicating  it  from  infected  flocks.  They  have  concluded : 
That  the  hard  nodule  sometimes  occurring  in  the  wattle  sub- 
sequent to  the  injection  of  tuberculin  is  not  an  indication  of  a 
reaction;  that  a characteristic  reaction  is  a soft  voluminous 
swelling,  sometimes  involving  the  opposite  wattle ; that  the 
test  is  not  yet  perfected  to  a point  where  it  can  be  relied  upon 
as  a means  of  detecting  all  cases  of  tuberculosis  and,  there- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


fore,  has  great  limitations  as  a means  of  ridding  the  flock  of 
infected  members. 

Ultra-Violet  Rays  Affect  Tuberculosis  Vaccine 

A vaccine  always  implies  the  use  of  a weakened  or  a dead 
culture  of  the  causal  organism.  Practically  all  of  the  work 
done  in  the  past  in  the  development  of  the  vaccine  against 
tuberculosis  has  been  with  the  cultures  of  the  tubercle  bacillus 
that  have  been  in  some  way  or  other  weakened  in  virulence. 
W.  D.  Frost  and  Miss  Meta  Schroeder  (Bacteriology)  have 
shown  that  the  tubercle  organism  in  cultures  can  be  killed  by 
ultra-violet  light  with  apparently  but  little  chemical  change 
in  its  specific  bodies.  The  use  of  cultures  killed  by  heating,  as 
is  the  customary  method  of  preparing  other  types  of  vaccine, 
has  not  obtained  general  favor,  because  of  the  high  tempera- 
ture needed  to  destroy  the  organism  and  the  considerable 
amount  of  chemical  change  caused  in  the  cell  content.  Vari- 
ous mechanical  difficulties,  however,  hinder  the  use  of  ultra- 
violet light.  It  was  first  essential  to  obtain  a uniform  sus- 
pension of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  also  a method  of  exposing  this 
suspension  to  the  ultra-violet  light.  The  two  difficulties  have 
been  overcome. 

Experiments  were  further  conducted  to  determine  whether 
the  tubercle  bacillus  could  be  destroyed  by  the  ultra-violet 
light.  Thirteen  animals  were  inoculated  with  the  exposed  sus- 
pension of  the  tubercle  bacillus  (exposed  to  ultra-violet  light 
at  a distance  of  9 inches  for  15  minutes)  and  two  with  the  sus- 
pension before  its  exposure  to  the  light.  The  two  animals 
injected  with  the  untreated  suspension  developed  generalized 
tuberculosis  while  the  thirteen  treated  animals  remained  free 
from  tuberculosis.  The  results  thus  show  the  possibility  of 
destroying  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

Observations  made  on  the  effect  of  the  vaccine  in  raising 
the  resistance  to  infection  with  virulent  tubercle  bacilli  were 
as  follows : Eight  animals  were  vaccinated  with  a suspension 

of  bacilli  killed  by  ultra-violet  light.  One  month  after  vac- 
cination they  were  injected  with  a virulent  culture  of  tubercle 
bacillus.  A second  injection  of  live  tubercle  bacillus  was 
given  four  months  later.  The  animals  were  killed  about  one 
month  following  the  second  injection.  Of  the  seven  animals 


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13 


then  remaining,  three  showed  no  evidences  of  tuberculosis, 
three  showed  a few  lesions  of  the  disease,  and  one  was  tuber- 
cular. Thirteen  control  animals,  that  is,  those  that  had  not 
received  the  vaccine  and  which  were  injected  with  the  living 
bacilli  at  the  same  time  as  the  vaccinated  group  of  animals,  all 
developed  generalized  tuberculosis. 

Further  experimentation  is  yet  necessary  before  accurate 
conclusions  can  be  drawn,  but  results  thus  far  prove  that  some 
protection  against  tubercle  bacilli  may  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  such  a culture  as  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Frost,  with  ultra- 
violet rays. 

Abortion  of  Sows 

From  a questionaire  sent  out  to  188  breeders  of  purebred 
swine,  it  was  learned  that  nearly  24  per  cent  had  experienced 
losses  from  abortion.  Of  83  sows  and  5 boars  tested  for  abor- 
tion, only  one  of  the  boars  but  51  of  the  sows  (65  per  cent) 
reacted.  Although  38  per  cent  of  these  sows  had  already 
aborted,  no  sow  failing  to  react  has  aborted. 

To  determine  the  relationships  between  porcine  and  bovine 
infectious  abortion,  experiments  have  been  conducted  by  Mr. 
Beach,  who  has  isolated  an  organism  from  two  aborting  sows 
in  the  Station  herd  and  has  found  it  to  be  a coccus,  as  is  the 
organism  causing  cattle  abortion.  To  show  whether  or  not 
the  two  organisms  are  the  same,  four  pregnant  sows  were  in- 
fected with  porcine  abortion  germs.  Three  of  these  infected 
sows  aborted,  while  one  failed  to  farrow,  yet  possibly  may 
have  aborted.  However,  of  three  other  sows  infected  with 
bovine  abortion  germs,  all  farrowed  normal  pigs ; and  of  three 
left  as  controls,  two  farrowed  normal  pigs  while  the  other  far- 
rowed fully  developed  dead  pigs.  The  latter  sow  and  pigs 
failed  to  show  evidences  of  abortion  infection  when  tested. 
These  results  warrant  the  tentative  conclusions  that : 

1.  The  majority  of  pregnant  sows  will  abort  following  in- 
oculation with  the  porcine  organism. 

2.  The  abortion  organism  of  bovine  origin  will  not  cause 
pregnant  sows  to  abort. 

3.  Blood  of  infected  sows  will  agglutinate  antigens  of  both 
porcine  and  bovine  origin. 

4.  Blood  of  infected  cows  has  a similar  effect. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


5.  Organisms  of  bovine  and  porcine  origin  are  morpholog- 
ically and  culturally  identical. 

6.  Abortion  of  swine  is  more  widespread  in  Wisconsin  than 
is  generally  supposed. 

With  the  further  experiments  now  being  conducted,  it  is 
hoped  to  determine  more  specifically  some  of  the  methods  of 
control  and  to  gather  at  the  same  time  more  information  re- 
garding this  dangerous  disease. 


22,1% 


^33. 


PER  CENT  THAT  ABORTED 

UNBRED  HEIFERS  VACCINATED 

UNBRED  HEIFERS  LEFT  UNVACCINATED  AS  CONTROLS 


OPEN  COWS  THAT  HAVE  NOT  ABORTED  VACCINATED 


55.< 


OPEN  COWS  THAT  HAVE  NOT  ABORTED  LEFT 
UNVACCINATED  AS  CONTROLS 


OPEN  COWS  THAT  HAVE  ABORTED  VACCINATED 


^ OPEN  COWS  THAT  HAVE  ABORTED  LEFT  U NVACONATED  AS  CONTROLS 


CLOSED  COWS  THAT  HAVE  NOT  ABORTED  V ACCINATED 


%/%%%  CL0SED  C0WS  ™AT  HAVE  NOT  ABORT  ED  LEFT  UNVACCINATED  AS  CONTROLS 
[tJpCG 1 CLOSED  COWS  THAT  HAVE  ABORTED  VACCINATED 


ENTIRE  NUMBER  VACCINATED 
,3 12  jo,  ENTraE  WMBER  OF  CONTROLS 


CLOSED  COWS  THAT  HAVE  ABORTED  LEFT  UN- 
VACCINATED AS  CONTROLS 


FIG.  3 — ABORTION  RATE  TWICE  AS  GREAT  IN  CONTROLS  AS  IN 
VACCINATED  ANIMALS 


Only  14.1  per  cent  of  the  vaccinated  cows  and  heifers  available  for 
data  aborted,  while  in  the  101  controls  that  were  not  treated  31.2  per 
cent  aborted. 


Vaccination  Against  Contagious  Abortion 

During  the  two-year  period  between  January  1,  1919,  and 
January  1,  1921,  nearly  1,000  doses  of  vaccine,  composed  of 
live  abortion  bacilli,  have  been  prepared  and  distributed 
through  the  veterinarians  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Had- 
ley. Thus  far,  reports  have  been  received  on  nearly  500  vac- 
cinated cattle  and  100  controls  in  42  different  herds  in  the  state. 


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15 


All  of  these  cattle  have  been  kept  under  ordinary  farm  con- 
ditions. A careful  study  of  these  reports  reveals  the  follow- 
ing results: 

Out  of  127  unbred  heifers  that  were  vaccinated  previous  to 
conception  77.9  per  cent  calved  normally,  while  only  66.7  per 
cent  of  those  not  vaccinated  did  so.  While  these  results  dem- 
onstrate the  immunizing  value  for  heifers,  they  are  not  as  sat- 
isfactory as  was  expected.  Much  more  satisfying  results  were 
obtained  from  open  cows  in  infected  herds  that  had  never 
aborted.  In  these  animals  the  vaccine  was  91.8  per  cent  ef- 
fective as  contrasted  to  44.4  per  cent  in  the  control  animals. 
The  vaccine  was  shown  to  have  little  value  when  adminis- 
tered to  open  cows  that  had  aborted,  for  there  was  very  little 
difference  between  the  controls  and  those  vaccinated.  A higher 
percentage  of  cows  that  were  pregnant  at  the  time  of  vaccina- 
tion and  had  never  aborted  did  so  subsequently  than  did  the 
controls  which  were  not  vaccinated.  No  advantage  was  ob- 
tained in  vaccinating  cows  that  had  aborted  and  that  were 
pregnant  at  the  time  of  treatment  over  those  which  were  inoc- 
ulated before  being  bred.  Out  of  a total  of  474  cows  and 
heifers  vaccinated,  data  were  obtained  on  439,  only  14.1  per 
cent  of  which  aborted ; while  of  the  101  controls  that  were  not 
treated,  31.2  per  cent  aborted,  thus  showing  that  the  abortion 
rate  was  twice  as  great  in  the  controls  as  in  the  vaccinated 
animals. 

These  experiments  indicate  that  abortion  vaccine  had  a de- 
cided immunizing  value,  especially  for  cattle  of  certain  groups ; 
trouble  with  retained  placenta  is  reduced ; and  vaccinated  cat- 
tle show  a decrease  not  only  in  the  abortion  rate  but  in  the 
sterility  rate  as  well,  for  there  is  a marked  increase  in  the 
breeding  efficiency  of  the  treated  animals. 

Swamp  Fever  Seasonal  Malady 

In  July  1920  a fatal  disease  of  horses  on  a large  farm  in 
Wood  County  was  reported  to  Mr.  Hadley.  He  visited  the 
farm  and  found  that  the  first  horse  died  about  July  1,  1919, 
and  that  up  to  December  1919  approximately  30  more  suc- 
cumbed. After  that  no  further  losses  occurred  until  June 
1920  when  three  horses  died  and  nine  more  showed  symptoms. 
Investigation  shows  that  this  was  swamp  fever,  a disease 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


which  is  seasonal  in  occurrence — appearing  in  June,  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  virulence  during  the  summer,  and  decreas- 
ing in  early  winter  until  it  disappears  in  December,  only  to 
return  the  following  spring.  Although  it  usually  runs  a 
chronic  course,  in  some  animals  it  causes  death  quite  promptly. 
Fortunately,  it  is  not  very  prevalent. 


FIG.  4. — FARM  HORSES  SICK  WITH  SWAMP  FEVER 


These  horses  are  in  various  stages  of  swamp  fever,  a disease  which 
caused  the  death  of  70  horses  on  one  large  farm  in  Wisconsin  during 
1919  and  1920. 

The  bone-marrow  shows  areas  of  dark  red  discoloration,  giving  it 
a blood-shot  appearance,  the  remainder  being  lighter  in  color  than 
normally. 


Pink  Sauerkraut  Caused  by  Yeast 

The  manufacture  of  sauerkraut  or  sour  cabbage  as  it  is 
sometimes  called  is  relatively  simple,  and  the  resulting  product 
is  relished  by  many  people.  In  Wisconsin  alone  the  sauer- 
kraut industry  produces  more  than  36,000,000  pounds  of 
sauerkraut  in  a year  in  addition  to  that  prepared  in  small 
quantities  in  the  innumerable  households. 


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17 


In  1920  investigations  carried  on  by  E.  B.  Fred  (Agricul- 
tural Bacteriology)  and  W.  H.  Peterson  (Agricultural  Chem- 
istry) in  cooperation  with  a pickle  and  canning  company  re- 
vealed some  very  interesting  points  regarding  pink  cabbage. 
Although  many  kinds  of  microorganisms  may  be  found,  lactic 
acid  bacteria  apparently  are  the  most  important  in  kraut  pro- 
duction, but  yeasts  are  also  commonly  found  in  kraut.  Some 
of  the  canning  factories  have  found  it  difficult  in  recent  years 
to  secure  sauerkraut  of  good  flavor,  texture,  and  color.  One 
of  the  difficulties  encountered  was  the  production  of  a well- 
defined  pink  or  salmon  pink  color.  This  kraut  is  an  undesired 
product  as  it  must  be  sold  at  a price  lower  than  that  obtained 
for  white  kraut. 

Investigations  show  that  the  pink  or  red  color  of  sauerkraut 
is  due  to  the  growth  of  certain  yeasts,  and  although  these  or- 
ganisms are  commonly  found  in  great  numbers  in  kraut,  they 
frequently  fail  to  show  any  pigment.  The  production  of  pig- 
ment depends  upon  many  factors,  such  as  the  amount  of  salt, 
the  amount  of  acid,  the  temperature,  and  the  oxygen  supply. 
Experiments  in  which  cabbage  was  allowed  to  ferment  at  a 
low  temperature  and  again  at  a higher  temperature  showed 
that  68°  F.  or  above  most  frequently  tends  to  the  production  of 
a pink  pigment.  Almost  without  exception,  cabbage  fer- 
mented in  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  sodium  chloride, 
3 per  cent  or  more,  showed  a decided  pink  color.  High  acid- 
forming bacteria  produce  an  environment  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  pink  pigment. 

By  carefully  observing  the  salt  concentration  of  the  brine 
and  by  keeping  the  cabbage  at  the  proper  temperature,  it  is 
possible  that  the  growth  of  the  yeast  which  produces  the  pink 
pigment  can  be  avoided. 

Factors  Influencing  Growth  and  Inoculation  of  Legumes 

The  soil-building  value  of  legumes  has  long  been  known, 
and  they  have  been  used  by  farmers  since  early  history.  Re- 
cently attention  has  been  directed  toward  learning  the  best 
environment  for  legumes.  During  the  past  year  O.  C.  Bryan 
(Soils  and  Bacteriology)  studied  the  effect  of  acidity  and 
alkalinity  (lime  content)  on  the  growth  and  inoculation  of 
soybeans,  both  in  solution  and-  in  sand  cultures.  It  was 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


learned  that  some  plant  growth  took  place  at  the  reaction 
slight  acidity  (pH  3.9),  and  also  at  the  maximum  acidity 
(pH  9.6).  The  range  in  which  growth  is  possible  is  a wider 
one  than  would  be  found  in  soils,  although  the  best  growth 
was  obtained  when  the  solutions  were  neutral  or  very  close 


3 —  Extreme  Acidity 

4 —  Strong  Acidity 

5 —  Medium  Acidity 


f> — Slight  Acidity 
7 — Neutral 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


19 


to  neutral.  The  development  of  nodules  on  the  plants  took 
place  only  within  a much  narrower  range  of  reaction ; namely, 
from  slight  acidity  to  slight  alkalinity,  proving  that  inocula- 
tion should  be  successful  in  any  soil  which  will  permit  a fair 
development  of  the  soybean  plant. 

Different  Inoculation  for  Different  Legumes.  The  most  suc- 
cessful inoculation  with  cultures  occurs  when  the  organism 
has  been  taken  from  the  nodules  of  the  same  kind  of  plant 
which  is  to  be  inoculated.  Bacteria  from  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover  and  from  peas  and  vetch  can  be  interchanged  favor- 
ably, but  soybean  and  clover  cultures  cannot. 

Inoculating  Canning  Peas  on  Fertile  Soil.  The  results  ob- 
tained with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Bryan  were  marked  when 
inoculating  peas  to  be  grown  on  soil  of  relatively  high  fer- 
tility. On  one  of  the  plots  (Miami  silt  loam  which  had  been 
under  cultivation  for  only  three  years)  the  inoculation  in- 
creased the  yield  of  plants.  Although  there  was  no  particular 
increase  in  the  weight  of  the  peas,  the  nitrogen  content,  on 
the  other  hand,  from  the  peas  of  the  inoculated  plot  was  con- 
siderably higher  than  that  of  the  peas  from  the  uninoculated. 

Plots  on  the  Carrington  silt  loam,  which  had  been  in  to- 
bacco and  clover  for  six  years  and  were  in  a high  state  of 
fertility,  showed  some  increase  not  only  in  the  total  weight 
of  the  plant  but  also  in  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  top  due  to 
inoculation,  while  the  weights  of  the  pods  and  peas  were  the 
same.  However,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  dampened  inoculated 
peas  would  not  feed  as  freely  in  the  drill,  the  number  of  plants 
on  the  uninoculated  area  was  much  greater  than  on  the  in- 
oculated. Had  the  number  of  plants  been  the  same  on  both 
plots,  it  is  certain  that  inoculation  would  have  shown  a de- 
cided improvement.  With  bacteria,  575  plants  yielded  a dry 
weight  of  2,055  grams  with  a nitrogen  content  in  the  tops  of 
3.67  per  cent  and  in  the  seeds  and  pods  4.42  per  cent.  Unin- 
oculated, 711  plants  yielded  only  1,858  grams  with  2.17  per 
cent  of  nitrogen  in  the  tops  and  3.3 1 per  cent  in  the  peas  and 
pods. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Acetic  and  Lactic  Acids  From  Corncobs 

If  the  yields  on  a commercial  scale  should  prove  equal  to 
those  obtained  in  the  laboratory,  it  is  estimated  that  every  ton 
of  corncobs  would  be  capable  of  yielding  more  than  300  pounds 
of  acetic  acid  and  320  pounds  of  lactic  acid.  The  discovery  of 
this  process  by  Mr.  Fred  and  Mr.  Peterson  during  the 
war  deserves  consideration  not  only  as  a war  process  but  as  a 
peace  time  method  for  the  commercial  utilization  of  corncobs 
as  a source  of  organic  acid.  When  cobs  are  partially  hydrol- 
yzed and  the  resulting  sugar  solution  inoculated  with  the 
proper  bacteria,  almost  equal  quantities  of  acetic  and  lactic 
acid  are  obtained.  The  . commercial  development  of  this  in- 
dustry will,  of  course,  involve  numerous  chemical  and  tech- 
nical problems,  but  the  possibility  of  producing  chemicals  in 
this  way  was  proved  when  over  5,000,000  pounds  of  acetone 
were  obtained  by  a fermentation  process  during  the  war  for 
use  in  making  explosives.  The  bacteria  used  have  certain 
characteristics  such  as  rapid  growth,  ability  to  produce  large 
amounts  of  acid  and  to  compete  successfully  with  other  or- 
ganisms, which  makes  them  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  propo- 
sition. In  the  United  States  alone  more  than  20,000,000  tons 
of  corncobs  are  produced  annually,  some  of  them  are  used  in 
various  stock  feeds  but  generally  they  are  discarded  or  used 
for  fuel  end  thus  this  new  discovery  has  great  possibilities. 

The  acids  are  obtained  by  fermenting  a syrup  made  from 
corncobs  hydrolyzed  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  This  hydro- 
lysis is  easily  brought  about  and  yields  from  30  to  40  per  cent 
of  xylose.  Crude  xylose  syrup  is  rapidly  fermented  by  certain 
microorganisms  such  as  Lactobacillus  pcntoaceticus  with  the  pro- 
duction of  these  acids.  The  process  is  very  effective,  for  about 
85  to  90  per  cent  of  the  xylose  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  two 
acids.  In  peace  time  processes,  acetic  acid  and  lactic  acid  are 
very  useful  particularly  in  the  tanning  of  hides  and  the  manu- 
facture of  acetone  and  other  chemicals.  Inasmuch  as  these 
industries  are  permanent,  we  may  expect  these  two  acids  to 
become  more  and  more  valuable. 

Methylene  Blue  Reduction  Test 

While  thus  far  the  butter  fat  content  of  milk  has  formed  the 
most  important  basis  for  payment,  yet  milk  supplied  to  city 
consumers  ought  sooner  or  later  to  be  tested  for  its  bacterial 


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21 


FIG.  6.— INOCULATION  HELPS  CANNING  PEAS 

Five  uninoculated  plants  of  Horsford  peas  on  left  (1),  and  on  right 
five  inoculated  (2). 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


content.  The  cheese  industry  at  the  same  time  must  expect 
to  use  prevention  rather  than  the  cure  by  pasteurization,  which 
has  proved  so  effective  in  eliminating  the  bacteria  in  butter 
making  and  for  ordinary  milk  distributing  systems. 

One  of  the  tests,  according  to  E-.  G.  Hastings  (Agricultural 
Bacteriology),  which  seems  to  give  most  promise  is  the  methy- 
lene blue  reduction  test.  It  is  simple  and  inexpensive,  being 
based  upon  the  fact  that  when  methylene  blue,  a dye,  is  added 
to  the  milk,  the  color  disappears  more  or  less  quickly  accord- 
ing to  the  bacterial  content  and  the  temperature  at  which  the 
test  is  made.  If  all  other  factors  are  the  same,  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  color  to  disappear  will  be  determined  by  the 
number  of  bacteria  in  the  milk  and  by  their  ability  to  grow  in 
it.  For  example,  a milk  containing  comparatively  few  bacteria 
may  not  destroy  the  color  of  the  dye  in  less  than  ten  or  twelve 
hours,  whereas  a milk  with  great  numbers  may  bring  about 
the  change  in  as  short  a time  as  five  or  ten  minutes. 

The  methylene  blue  test  is  of  great  value  in  determining 
the  quality  of  milk  for  Swiss  cheese  making  and  forms  a valu- 
able supplement  to  the  fermentation  test  or  the  curd  test  for 
this  purpose.  A milk  may  be  quite  low  in  bacteria,  the  great 
majority  of  those  present  may  be  gas  formers  and  the  milk- 
will  give  very  poor  results  in  the  fermentation  test,  while  an- 
other milk  may  give  a very  good  fermentation  test  and  a rapid 
color  loss  in  the  methylene  blue  test.  The  latter  milk  may  not 
be  as  good  for  Swiss  cheese  making  as  the  former,  due  to  the 
fact  that  by  the  use  of  good  whey  rennet,  or  by  the  use  of  the 
artificial  cultures,  the  few  gas-forming  bacteria  can  be  over- 
come easily.  The  poorest  milk,  of  course,  is  that  which  is 
high  in  bacteria,  and  in  which  the  majority  are  of  the  gas- 
forming type. 

In  the  Swiss  cheese  industry  where  it  is  so  necessary  to 
avoid  large  numbers  of  “gas-formers/’  the  cheese  maker  will 
be  able  to  grade  his  milk  far  more  accurately  than  formerly, 
by  the  combination  of  the  methylene  blue  test  and  the  fer- 
mentation test.  Both  of  these  can  be  made  in  the  same  tube 
with  the  sample  of  milk.  Outfits  have  been  supplied  to  a num- 
ber of  factories  in  the  Swiss  cheese  district.  The  results  ob- 
tained with  the  test  are  apparently  very  favorable.  The  test 
is  readily  applied,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  opportunity  for 
the  cheese  maker  to  do  injustice  to  a patron  through  its  use. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


23 


However,  so  many  variations  in  the  technique  of  the  test 
have  been  used  by  different  investigators  that  the  entire  work 
has  been  confusing.  In  an  effort  to  remedy  this,  Mr.  Hast- 
ings, Miss  Audrey  Davenport,  and  W.  H.  Wright  (Agricul- 
tural Bacteriology)  have  determined  a standard  method  for 
making  and  reading  the  test.  A stock  solution  of  methylene 
blue  is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  part  of  crystalline  dye  in 
2,000  parts  of  water.  From  this,  a portion  is  further  diluted 
until  the  concentration  is  1 to  20,000;  thus  1 c.  c.  in  10  c.  c.  of 
milk  gives  a dilution  of  slightly  over  1 to  200,000.  The  tubes 
used  should  be  only  half-filled  by  the  test  and  should  be 
cleaned  and  steamed  or  boiled  shortly  before  using.  After 
adding  the  dye,  the  contents  of  the  tube  are  mixed  by  closing 
it  with  the  thumb  or  palm,  inverting  once  or  twice.  (An  in- 
fection from  the  thumb  can  be  prevented  by  wiping  it  with  a 
clean  towel.)  The  only  apparatus  needed  is  a water  bath 
which  can  be  kept  at  blood  heat.  While  it  is  not  possible  to 
determine  accurately  the  exact  number  of  bacteria,  the  rela- 
tive rank  of  the  samples  can  easily  be  read.  The  number  of 
observations  made  will  be  determined  by  the  grades  into 
which  the  milk  is  divided,  and  ordinarily  there  will  be  little 
use  of  extending  the  period  of  observation  over  six  hours. 

Spoilage  of  Evaporated  Milk 

From  a number  of  samples  of  spoiled  evaporated  milk  sub- 
mitted to  the  Bacteriology  Department  from  different  con- 
densing factories  in  the  state,  two  general  types  of  spoilage 
have  been  observed  on  storage  by  Mr.  Hastings:  First,  the 

development  of  a very  firm  curd  ; second,  the  development  of 
a bitter  taste.  Many  of  the  cans  show  few  or  no  organisms 
either  culturally  or  on  microscopic  examination,  and  in  many 
instances  positive  results  were  obtained  only  when  large 
quantities  of  the  milk  were  used  for  the  inoculation  of  the 
various  media.  Recent  work  has  shown  that  spores  of  certain 
aerobic  (requiring  free  oxygen)  organisms  are  the  most  diffi- 
cult forms  to  destroy  in  the  canning  process.  'The  organisms, 
when  grown  under  aerobic  conditions,  decompose  the  milk 
more  completely.  By  inoculating  these  same  organisms  into 
cons  of  evaporated  milk  which  were  then  resealed,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  duplicate  exactly  the  results  which  were  noted  in  the 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


cans  submitted.  The  limitation  of  the  degree  of  heat  that 
can  be  used  in  the  sterilization  of  milk  makes  it  difficult  to 
overcome  these  troubles  unless  some  way  of  exhausting  the 
can  be  devised.  When  canning  practically  all  types  of  fruits, 
meats,  and  vegetables,  the  cans  are  so  thoroughly  exhausted 
of  oxygen  by  the  use  of  heat  that  even  those  aerobic  spores 
which  resist  the  treatment  cannot  germinate. 

Evaporated  milk  is  placed  in  the  cans  after  the  milk  has 
cooled,  however.  If  exhaustion  of  the  can  is  made,  a limited 
supply  of  oxygen  is  always  present  to  permit  growth.  As  the 
oxygen  is  used  up,  growth  stops,  the  cells  disintegrate,  and  the 
enzymes  are  set  free.  The  amount  of  enzyme  is  sufficient  to 
cause  only  a limited  decomposition  in  the  milk,  and  on  an  ex- 
amination of  such  a can  it  may  be  found  sterile  although  bac- 
terial growth  had  previously  taken  place. 

Remedied  Troubles  in  Evaporated  Milk 

During  the  past,  milk  condenseries  have  experienced  much 
trouble  in  the  normal  process  of  canning  milk.  H.  H.  Sommer 
(Dairy  Husbandry)  has  continued  his  investigation,  applying 
to  evaporated  milk  at  condenseries  the  observations  he  made 
in  the  laboratory  on  sweet  fluid  milk  in  order  to  discover  the 
reasons  for  coagulation.  He  has  particularly  studied  the 
question  with  reference  to  the  acidity,  the  total  solid  contents 
of  the  milk,  and  the  composition  of  the  various  milk  salts,  as 
well  as  the  effect  of  heating  a synthetic  case  in  solution  in  the 
presence  of  various  combinations  of  salts. 

At  condenseries  observations  were  made  on  the  effect  of  the 
addition  of  sodium  citrate,  sodium  and  potassium  phosphate 
calcium  chloride,  and  sodium  bicarbonate  on  the  coagulation 
of  the  evaporated  milk  during  the  sterilizing  process.  It  is 
during  sterilization  that  the  trouble  most  frequently  occurs  in 
the  condenseries.  Condensery  owners  in  the  past  have  blamed 
a number  of  sources,  such  as  improper  care  of  the  milk  and 
extreme  acidity.  Now  Mr.  Sommer  has  found  that  sodium 
citrate,  sodium  and  potassium  phosphate,  and  calcium  chlo- 
ride, although  normal  constituents  of  milk,  have  a very  de- 
cided effect  on  coagulation.  In  the  past,  condenseries  have 
added  sodium  bicarbonate  whenever  coagulation  appeared, 
regardless  of  whethei  or  not  it  was  due  to  the  acidity  of  the 
milk. 


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25 


Sodium  bicarbonate  seems  to  function  in  two  ways : 
First,  by  changing  the  reaction  of  the  evaporated  milk;  sec- 
ond, by  counteracting  the  effect  of  an  excess  of  calcium  salts. 
In  one  case,  it  was  found  that  the  addition  of  sodium  bicar- 
bonate, a practice  general  in  condenseries  for  many  years, 
may  in  certain  instances  be  harmful  rather  than  helpful,  as  it 
may  hasten  the  coagulation  of  the  evaporated  milk  during  the 
sterilizing  process. 

The  proper  amount  of  any  of  these  salts  needed  to  improve 
the  evaporated  milk  may  easily  be  obtained  by  taking  a series 
of  samples  and  adding  the  salt  in  question  in  increasing 
amounts.  When  these  samples  have  been  sterilized  in  the 
usual  manner,  an  examination  of  the  evaporated  milk  will  in- 
dicate the  optimum  amount  of  the  salt  to  be  used.  In  many 
cases  results  of  one  day  enable  the  worker  to  anticipate  the 
necessary  addition  for  the  next  day;  and  whenever  this  is  pos- 
sible, the  salt  should  be  added  before  the  milk  is  concentrated, 
thus  insuring  a more  uniform  and  more  effective  distribution. 
The  particular  value  of  these  tests  is  that  they  will  enable 
the  testing  of  each  batch  of  condensed  milk  product  before  it 
is  canned,  thereby  offering  a means  of  determining  the  cor- 
rect amount  of  citrates  or  phosphates  that  should  be  added. 

Conclusions  on  Coagulation.  At  the  factories  visited  during 
the  year  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  three  normal  milk 
salts,  sodium  citrate,  sodium  or  potassium  phosphate,  and  cal- 
cium chloride,  when  added  to  evaporated  milk  in  small 
amounts  have  a decided  effect  upon  the  coagulation  during 
the  sterilizing  process. 

An  excess  of  either  of  these  salts  hastens  coagulation.  So- 
dium citrate  and  sodium  or  potassium  phosphate  have  a bal- 
ancing effect  against  the  action  of  the  calcium  salts,  that  is, 
they  prevent  coagulation  caused  by  an  excess  of  calcium  salts. 
Thus,  if  coagulation  is  caused  by  an  excess  of  citrates  and 
phosphates,  it  may  be  prevented  by  an  addition  of  calcium 
salts,  for  the  effect  of  these  two  salts  seem  to  balance  each 
other,  and  apparently  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  present  in 
some  definite  proportion  if  the  condensing  of  the  milk  product 
is  to  be  successful. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Solids  and  Fats  in  Ice  Cream  Calculated  by  Easy  Formula 

Ice  cream  makers  at  the  present  time  use  considerable  quan- 
tities of  milk  powder,  condensed  skimmilk,  butter,  and  cream 
— quite  a different  combination  from  that  formerly  used  in 
making  ice  cream  on  a small  scale.  The  simple  ice  cream 
mixes  in  which  no  condensed  milk  or  dairy  products  other 
than  sweet  cream  are  used  can  easily  be  standardized  so  that 
they  contain  a definite  percentage  of  fat.  The  ice  cream  maker 
even  at  the  present  time  has  no  difficulty  in  getting  what  he 
wants  in  his  simple  mixes,  but  within  recent  years  the  ice 
cream  makers’  “mix”  has  become  so  complicated  that  it  re- 
quires considerable  attention. 

Thus  far,  the  formula  suggested  for  making  a mix  which 
shall  contain  a definite  percentage  of  fat  and  of  solids  simul- 
taneously, has  been  an  algebraic  one,  too  complicated  for  the 
majority  of  ice  cream  manufacturers  to  use.  Mr.  Sommer, 
however,  has  solved  the  problem  by  suggesting  the  following: 

V_BC  + 8.9A  — 8.9C  — AD 
A — 0.911C  + B — .911A  — D 

A = the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  condensed  milk  product. 

B = the  per  cent  of  solids  in  the  condensed  milk  product. 

C = the  desired  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  mixture. 

D = the  desired  per  cent  of  solids  in  the  mixture. 

X = the  test  of  the  cream  to  be  used  in  making  the  mix. 

A,  B,  C,  and  D are  known  in  any  given  calculation  so  that 
the  value  of  X,  the  test  of  the  cream  to  be  used  in  making  the 
mix,  can  be  calculated  by  simple  arithmetic.  The  value  of  X is 
the  test  of  the  cream  required  so  that,  when  the  cream  is  mixed 
with  the  condensed  milk  product  in  the  proper  proportions,  the 
desired  fat  and  solids  content  are  obtained  in  the  mixture 
simultaneously. 

Fake  Test  Versus  the  Babcock  Milk  Test 

From  time  to  time  some  investigators  have  proposed  a new 
test  for  butter  fat  which,  it  is  promised,  will  not  only  prove 
more  useful  than  the  Babcock  test  but  also  more  efficient  and 
accurate.  After  thirty  years,  however,  all  efforts  have  failed 
to  produce  a tester  more  satisfactory  than  that  invented  by 
Dr.  Babcock  in  1891. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


27 


Recently  a tester  called  the  Bickley  and  Gray  Milk  Tester 
was  presented  for  investigation  to  the  Dairy  Department. 

This  test  is  simply  a promoters’  scheme  to  sell  a hoax  to 
the  people  of  Wisconsin,  for  in  28  tests  made  under  different 
conditions  by  L.  C.  Thomsen  (Dairy  Husbandry)  the  results 
were  sometimes  far  below  the  ordinary  tests  for  the  Babcock 
and  at  other  times  far  above  it.  No  exact  variation  could  be 
found.  Of  the  first  three  samples  given,  all  contained  3.1  per 
cent  fat  by  the  Babcock  Test,  while  the  Gray  spindle  gave  the 
results  of  3.8  per  cent,  5.00  per  cent,  and  4.3  per  cent.  Of 
three  other  samples  of  milk  the  Babcock  test  was  4.8  per  cent 
fat,  the  Gray  test  3.5  per  cent,  3.5  per  cent,  and  4.2  per  cent. 
The  fault  of  this  test  lies  in  that  the  specific  gravity  of  samples 
of  milk  testing  the  same  percentage  of  fat  will  vary  consider- 
ably. This  is  simply  a specific  gravity  spindle. 

The  changes  which  occur  in  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  an 
hour  or  so  after  milking,  as  well  as  the  variation  in  the  per- 
centages of  solids-not-fat  in  samples  of  milk  due  to  the  differ- 
ence in  lactation  period  of  the  cows  and  to  the  normal  char- 
acteristics of  the  milk  secreted  by  different  cows,  make  it  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  accept  the  results  of  the  Gray  test  as  a 
correct  figure  for  showing  the  percentage  of  butter  fat.  This 
Gray  test  is  certainly  in  error  and  should  not  mislead  anyone 
into  a belief  that  his  butter  fat  content  is  lower  or  higher  than 
that  which  may  be  obtained  by  the  regular  Babcock  test. 

Whey  Butter  Versus  Milk  Butter 

Much  discussion  has  recently  centered  about  the  statements 
that  there  is  no  way  known  to  the  chemists  to  identify  whey 
butter  from  other  butter  for  the  purpose  of  convicting  a 
violator  of  the  whey  butter  label  law.  To  determine  the  rela- 
tive value  of  these  two  methods,  J.  L.  Sammis  (Dairy  Hus- 
bandry) made  36  lots  of  butter.  In  making  each  of  these  lots 
a vat  of  whole  milk,  such  as  is  regularly  delivered  by  farmer 
patrons  at  the  University  creamery,  was  first  well  mixed,  then 
divided  into  two  parts ; one  part  being  run  through  a cen- 
trifugal cream  separator,  and  the  cream  ripened  with  a starter, 
churned,  and  a ten-pound  package  of  the  butter  saved  for 
observation.  A second  portion  of  the  mixed  milk  was  made 
into  cheese  by  the  regular  cheese  factory  methods  for  making 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


American  cheese,  and  the  whey  was  skimmed  with  a cen- 
trifugal whey  separator.  The  whey  cream  was  ripened  with 
the  same  starter  as  the  milk-cream  and  a ten-pound  package 
of  whey  butter  held  for  observation  in  the  same  way  as  the 
whole  milk  butter.  The  two  lots  of  butter  were  made  daily 
from  portions  of  the  same  mixed  milk  so  that  an  equal  sanitary 
quality  and  bacterial  infection  in  the  two  lots  of  butter  was 
assured ; experiments  were  made  two  or  three  times  weekly 
between  March  and  May,  1921. 

The  lots  of  butter  made  in  the  experiments  were  placed  in 
the  creamery  refrigerator  and  scored  when  fresh;  then  again 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  months  after  the  butter  was  made. 
Twelve  different  judges  who  were  kept  in  ignorance  of  the 
method  of  making  were  employed  to  score  the  butter.  A state- 
ment of  the  butter  scores  shows  that  the  jars  of  whole  milk 
butter  were  scored  342  times,  those  of  whey  butter  341  times ; 
that  the  average  of  the  milk  butter  scores  was  88.98,  and  of  the 
whey  butter  scores  90.11.  The  whey  butter  had  a slightly 
higher  average  score  than  the  milk  butter. 

This  difference  in  the  score  of  the  two  butters  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that,  in  cheese  making,  95  per  cent  or  more 
of  the  bacteria  in  milk  are  retained  in  the  cheese  curd,  and  only 
a small  proportion  of  them  escape  into  the  whey.  Thus  whey 
butter  contains  a smaller  number  of  bacteria  from  milk  than 
the  milk  butter,  and  consequently  the  quality  of  whey  butter 
may  be  better  than  that  of  the  whole  milk  butter.  The  small 
amount  of  rennet  extract  which  may  have  been  present  in  the 
whey  butter  did  no't  tend  to  depreciate  its  quality.  Further, 
chemical  analysis  showed  that  the  two  butters  contained  ap- 
proximately the  identical  per  cent  of  casein.  The  conclusion 
therefore,  follows  that  nothing  in  the  normal  process  of  mak- 
ing whey  butter  makes  it  inferior  in  quality  to  whole  milk 
butter. 

Swiss  Cheese  Making 

Due  to  the  general  lack  of  milk  inspection  at  Swiss  cheese 
factories,  milk  used  in  making  Swiss  cheese  is  often  unclean 
or  over-ripe,  and  as  a result  a great  deal  of  trouble  is  often 
occasioned,  and  many  losses  are  sustained  by  Swiss  cheese 
makers.  Mr.  Sammis  has  continued  his  investigations  of 
Swiss  cheese  making,  taking  up  inspection  methods,  the  effec- 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


29 


tiveness  of  eye-forming  cultures,  the  possibilities  of  handling 
night  milk  the  same  as  morning  milk,  the  relation  of  richness 
of  milk  to  the  quality  of  Swiss  cheese,  prevention  of  gas  holes 
under  the  rind,  comparison  of  tests  used  for  selecting  milk, 
factors  affecting  the  Swiss  cheese  making  process,  and  the 
cause  of  soft  decayed  spots  in  Swiss  cheese. 

Small  holes  in  great  numbers  often  appear  on  the  rind  and 
not  in  the  interior  of  Swiss  cheese.  Experiments  are  now 
being  conducted  to  determine  whether  the  application  of  hot 
metal  press  boards  to  the  top  and  the  cooling  of  the  cheese  at 
the  sides  will  check  the  gas  formation  at  the  surface.  Soft 
spots  in  cheese  may  be  caused  by  : (1)  the  formation  of  lumps 

in  the  curd  due  to  rapid  heating  while  soft,  (2)  settling  of 
curd  and  improper  breaking  up  after  it  has  stuck  together,  (3) 
uneven  temperature  and  coagulation  of  milk  in  the  kettle. 
They  may  be  caused  experimentally  by  dropping  lumps  of  soft 
curd  into  the  cheese  before  dipping.  The  eye-forming  starter 
which  has  been  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Dairy  Division 
is  now  being  tried  out  by  the  cheese  factory  at  this  Station. 
However,  before  starters  are  likely  to  be  successfully  used  in 
commercial  factories,  it  is  necessary  that  the  workers  learn  to 
handle  them  and  learn  also  the  inspection  and  selection  of  milk 
that  is  fit  for  Swiss  cheese  making. 

Cheese  Yields  and  Cheese  Factory  Payments 

The  “pooling  system,”  the  “straight-fat”  method,  the  “fat 
plus  2”  method,  and  the  “fat  plus  casein”  method  of  paying  for 
milk  at  cheese  factories  have  been  tested  by  Mr.  Sammis  dur- 
ing a period  of  three  years  on  cheese  made  from  low  and  from 
high  testing  milk.  Various  methods  have  been  employed  by 
different  factories  for  paying  their  patrons,  but  these  results 
show  the  general  advantage  of  the  “fat  plus  2”  system  of  pay- 
ment. 

Possible  sources  of  error  were  eliminated  by  using  milk 
from  the  University  herd ; both  lots  of  milk  were  strained  and 
cooled  alike,  stored  over  night  in  the  same  refrigerator, 
delivered  to  the  cheese  room  at  the  same  temperature ; and 
further  the  cheese  was  made  at  the  same  time  each  day.  Thus 
was  insured  a uniformity  in  the  lots  of  milk  as  to  methods  of 
production,  cleanliness,  temperature  of  storage  over  night,  and 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


degree  of  bacterial  ripeness.  These  precautions  were  taken  so 
that  the'  respective  lots  of  milk  might  not  be  affected  in  any 
respect  other  than  by  difference  in  test  of  the  milk.  Each  lot  of 
milk  used  was  tested  for  fat  and  casein,  and  the  cheese  from 
each  was  weighed  when  taken  from  the  press  and  immediately 
tested  for  moisture,  fat,  and  casein.  The  “fat  plus  .6”  or  “fat 
plus  calculated  casein”  method  represents  cheese  assumed  to 
be  of  a uniform  water  content,  but  the  other  methods  of  cal- 
culating yields  assume  variable  amounts  of  water  in  cheese 
from  milk  of  different  fat  tests. 

1.  The  actual  yield  of  cheese  corresponds  most  closely  to 
the  “fat  plus  2”  figures  and  also  quite  closely  to  the  “straight 
fat”  method  of  figuring,  or  to  the  test  of  the  milk  at  those  fac- 
tories where  there  is  no  greater  variation  than  0.5  per  cent  fat 
between  the  highest  and  the  lowest  test  for  the  same  month. 
When  the  difference  in  test  between  the  highest  and  the  lowest 
patrons  is  over  0.5  per  cent  fat,  the  yield  of  cheese  figured  by 
the  “straight  fat”  method  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  actual 
yield  of  cheese,  because  the  cheese  from  the  thinner  milk  con- 
tains more  water,  more  casein,  and  less  fat  than  the  cheese  from 
the  richer  milk.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  records  which 
show  that  there  is  more  casein  in  proportion  to  the  fat  in  thin 
than  in  rich  milk,  and  further,  that  the  casein  in  the  cheese 
holds  a definite  amount  of  water.  Consequently  the  cheese 
made  from  low  testing  milk  holds  more  water,  because  it  con- 
tains more  casein,  than  the  cheese  made  from  richer  milk, 
which  contains  more  fat.  Therefore,  the  yield  of  cheese  per 
pound  of  fat  is  not  the  same  for  thin  milk  as  for  rich  milk. 

2.  The  relation  of  the  casein  to  moisture  in  the  cheese  was 
approximately  the  same  figure,  being  1.75  in  the  cheese  made 
from  the  low  testing  Holstein  milk  and  1.77  in  the  cheese  made 
from  the  higher  testing  Jersey  milk. 

3.  In  regard  to  the  yield  of  cheese  from  high  testing  (4.66 
per  cent  fat)  and  from  low  (3.25  per  cent  fat)  testing  milk, 
these  experiments  show  that  by  adding  2 to  the  test  of  the  milk 
and  multiplying  the  sum  of  these  two  figures  by  1.77,  the  result 
obtained  corresponds  very  closely  with  the  weight  of  the 
cheese  obtained.  The  figure  2 in  “fat  plus  2”  does  not  neces- 
sarily represent  the  assumed  casein  composition  of  the  milk, 
but  it  is  a mathematical  constant  which  according  to  the  ex- 
perimental results  is  actually  2.16.  The  following  formula  is 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


31 


suggested  for  calculating  the  yield  of  cheese  from  milk  of  any 
test.  Fat  percentage  plus  casein  percentage,  plus  (water  per- 
centage equal  to)  1.75  multiplied  by  casein  percentage  equals 
cheese  yield,  in  which  the  3.5  per  cent  of  added  salt  is  assumed 
to  offset  the  losses  of  fat  and  casein  in  the  whey.  The  cheese, 
however,  made  from  the  low  testing  milk  contained  on  the 
average  2.4  per  cent  more  water,  1.56  per  cent  more  casein, 
and  3.86  per  cent  less  fat  than  the  cheese  made  from  the  higher 
testing  milk. 

4.  Due  to  the  differences  in  composition  between  the  Hol- 
stein and  Jersey  cheese,  and,  because  the  latter  shows  a greater 
food  value  per  pound,  the  desirability  of  paying  more  per 
pound  for  cheese  from  high  testing  milk  is  evident.  This  is 
done  in  payments  by  the  “straight  fat”  method.  However, 
the  experiments  show  clearly  that  when  factories  wish  to  pay 
patrons  strictly  according  to  cheese  yield,  without  taking  into 
consideration  any  differences  in  composition  of  cheese  from 
high  and  low  testing  milk,  the  “fat  plus  2”  method  of  payment 
should  be  used. 


TABLE  I— CHEESE  YIELDS  CORRESPONDING  WITH  THREE 
PAYMENT  SYSTEMS 


Patron  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Milk  test,  fat,  per  cent 

3.0% 

3.5% 

4.0% 

4.5% 

5.0% 

Yields  figured  to  correspond  to: 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Straight  fat 

....  ....  7.95 

9.275 

10.60 

11.925 

13.25 

Pat  plus  .6 

8.30 

9.45 

10.60 

11.74 

12.90 

Fat  plus  2.  

8.83 

9.72 

10.60 

11.48 

12.37 

These  figures  show  that  the  gain  in  yield  of  cheese  for  an 
increase  of  1 per  cent  in  milk  fat  test  should  be  2.65  pounds 
according  to  the  “straight  fat”  system,  2.3  pounds  according  to 
the  “fat  plus  .6”  system,  and  according  to  the  “fat  plus  2” 
system,  the  gain  in  yield  should  be  1.77  pounds. 

Use  Milk  Drinks  Instead  of  Soda  Pop 

By  teaching  the  use  of  milk,  condensed  milk,  or  milk  powder 
either  in  the  household  as  home  made,  ice  drinks,  or  as  car- 
bonated drinks  at  the  fountain — thus  getting  food  value  of 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


milk  in  either  case — the  demand  for  Wisconsin’s  dairy  prod- 
ucts is  being  increased. 

The  homemade  drinks,  according  to  Mr.  Sammis,  are  made 
by  placing  in  a glass  any  pleasing  flavor  as  vanilla,  lemon,  or 
strawberry,  which  the  housewife  may  have  on  the  pantry 
shelf.  A few  trials  will  show  the  right  amount  of  flavor  to 
use.  Add  about  two  spoonfuls  of  sugar,  and  fill  up  the  glass 
with  cold,  sweet  milk,  and  put  in  a piece  of  ice.  This  home 
made  milk  drink  can  be  had  in  a variety  of  flavors  to  please 
anybody. 

At  the  fountain  the  same  mixture  of  flavor,  sugar,  and  milk 
or  milk  powder  is  used  as  before,  but  the  glass  is  filled  up 
with  carbonated  water  instead  of  ice  water.  It  has  the  same 
food  value  as  the  home-made  drink  because  both  are  made  of 
milk. 

Wheat  Scab  Influenced  by  Climate 

The  wheat  scab  organism  against  which  it  is  hoped  to  breed 
a resistant  strain  of  wheat  is  very  dangerous,  for  not  only 
does  it  cause  a loss  in  the  wheat  crop,  but  it  often  is  respon- 
sible for  a severe  blighting  in  barley,  oats,  and  rye  seedlings, 
as  well  as  the  seedling  blight  and  root  rot  of  corn.  These 
losses  vary  greatly  from  year  to  year,  depending  upon  the  cli- 
matic conditions,  but  constitute  an  especially  heavy  tax  on  the 
corn  belt  as  well  as  the  winter  wheat  areas  and  the  southern 
portion  of  the  spring  wheat  section  of  the  central  and  upper 
Mississippi  valley. 

This  parasite  hibernates  in  infected  “scabbed”  wheat  ker- 
nels and,  in  addition  to  remaining  in  infected  seed,  persists 
indefinitely  in  the  soil,  developing  from  year  to  year  on  the  crop 
refuse  of  wheat,  other  small  grains,  and  corn.  Dependent 
upon  the  environing  condition,  the  disease  caused  by  this  para- 
site shows  a wide  range  of  symptoms.  Oftentimes  it  attacks 
the  seedlings  before  they  emerge  from  the  ground,  killing 
them  outright;  sometimes  the  effect  is  seen  by  yellowing  and 
blight  during  the  first  or  second  leaf  stage ; while  still  others 
may  remain  weakened  and  dwarfed  during  their  later  develop- 
ment. These  stunted  and  weakened  seedlings  of  wheat  and 
corn,  if  they  mature  at  all,  usually  yield  only  a small  amount 
of  grain  of  inferior  quality. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


33 


FIG.  7.— CORN  SEEDLINGS  KILLED  BY  WHEAT  SCAB  PARASITE 

At  low  temperatures  (54°F)  plants  from  inoculated  seed  (1)  were 
all  killed  before  emerging.  Those  uninoculated  (2)  grew  well  but  were 
influenced  by  the  low  soil  temperature.  See  Fig.  8. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Experiments  made  by  J.  G.  Dickson*  (Plant  Pathology) 
under  both  greenhouse  and  field  conditions  indicated  that  the 
disease  in  the  wheat  thrives  best  at  relatively  high  tempera- 
tures (61°  F.  to  75°  F.),  whereas  the  disease  in  the  corn  plant 
made  better  headway  at  considerably  lower  temperatures 
(46°  F.  to  68°  F.).  Curiously  enough,  however,  the  wheat 
plant  thrives  best  at  temperatures  unfavorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  scab  (46°  F.  to  53°  F.),  while  corn  requires  warmer 
conditions  than  the  scab — or  temperatures  near  68°  F.  to  82°  F. 

The  influence  of  soil  moisture  was  also  studied.  In  a rela- 
tively dry  soil,  containing  30  per  cent  of  the  moisture-holding 
capacity,  at  a temperature  (46°  F.)  at  which  the^disease  ordi- 
narily would  not  develop,  over  40  per  cent  of  the  wheat  seed- 
lings blighted  in  comparison  with  no  blight  at  the  same  tem- 
perature where  the  soil  moisture  was  60  per  cent  of  the  water- 
holding capacity.  In  these  experiments  seedlings  were  inocu- 
lated with  the  organism  which  produces  the  disease ; but, 
when  the  disease-free  seed  was  used  at  30  per  cent  moisture, 
it  made  a very  good  growth  with  only  a slight  indication  that 
soil  moisture  was  becoming  a critical  environmental  factor. 

Time  of  planting  and  the  effect  of  seasons  are  here  shown, 
for  both  the  greenhouse  and  field  experiments  have  demon- 
strated that  wheat  and  corn  seedlings  become  attacked  by  the 
wheat  scab  parasite  only  when  under  unfavorable  environ- 
mental conditions  such  as  temperature,  moisture,  soil  reaction, 
or  others,  or  a combination  of  several  of  these  factors.  Fur- 
ther results  show  that  the  two  hosts  respond  differently  to  at 
least  one  factor — soil  temperature.  Wheat  blights  in  a com- 
paratively warm  soil  above  53°  F.,  while  corn  blights  in  a cool 
soil  below  68°  F.  Prevention,  here,  offers  the  solution  of  the 
difficulty  and  emphasizes  more  strongly  than  ever  some  of  the 
uses  already  in  practice. 

1.  Plant  spring  wheat  at  the  earliest  safe  date  in  the  spring; 
plant  winter  wheat  at  the  latest  safe  date  in  the  fall. 

2.  Plant  corn  after  the  soil  has  warmed  up  in  the  spring  and 
danger  of  long  cold  periods  has  passed. 

With  disease-free  seed  and  the  proper  rotation  of  crops,  that 
is,  one  in  which  wheat  does  not  follow  wheat  or  corn,  or  corn 
follow  corn  or  wheat  for  many  years  in  succession,  seedling 
blight  can  be  eliminated  as  a dangerous  disease. 

* This  work  is  cooperatively  supported  by  the  Office  of  Cereal  Inves- 
tigations, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


35 


FIG.  8. — HIGH  SOIL  TEMPERATURES  CONTROL  WHEAT  SCAB 
PARASITES. 

Corn  plants  inoculated  (1)  and  uninoculated  (2)  thrived  equally 
well  at  relatively  high  temperatures  (75°F).  Compare  with  Fig.  7. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Growers  have  for  some  years  noted  that  the  disease  could 
in  part  be  checked  by  planting  wheat  early  and  corn  late,  but 
no  one  had  found  out  why  this  was  so. 

Breeding  Strains  to  Resist  Wheat  Scab 

Frequently  during  recent  years  the  plant  pathologists  of  the 
College  have  been  able  to  thwart  dangerous  plant  diseases  by 
breeding  resistant  strains  of  the  susceptible  plant.  With  work 
in  field  plots  for  the  past  two  seasons,  Mr.  Dickson  has  shown 
that  the  head  blight  or  wheat  scab  infection  of  wheat  develops 
immediately  after  the  flowering  period.  This  parasite  forms 
its  spores  on  decaying  crop  refuse,  from  which  it  is  carried  by 
air  currents  to  the  wheat  head,  there  to  infect  at  first  the  anther 
of  the  flower  after  it  has  opened.  Later  it  develops  in  the  ad- 
jacent tissues  in  the  hulls  (glumes)  surrounding  the  growing 
kernel. 

Observation  again  shows  that  the  percentage  of  scab  de- 
pends upon  the  number  of  anthers  which  remain  within  the 
hull.  Most  of  the  important  commercial  varieties  of  winter 
wheat  grown  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  come  under  this  class. 
Turkey,  Kharkof,  Kanred,  Fultz,  and  others  grown  less  com- 
monly at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  during  the  past  two  seasons 
have  shown  high  percentages  of  the  anthers  held  within  the 
glumes  and,  at  the  same  time,  high  percentages  of  the  disease. 
With  this  knowledge,  then,  specific  effort  was  directed  toward 
the  selection  of  individual  plants  from  the  various  varieties 
having  a marked  freedom  from  “open”  anthers. 

Three  strains  of  Turkey  wheat  have  been  obtained  which 
possessed  this  character.  For  the  past  two  seasons  tests  have 
been  made  to  determine  whether  such  plants  showed  any  in- 
creased resistance.  It  has  been  gratifying  to  find  that  the 
percentage  of  scab  in  some  of  these  desirable  commercial  va- 
rieties that  were  selected  with  special  reference  to  this  pe- 
culiar structure  of  the  anther  showed  only  2 or  3 per  cent  of 
scab  as  compared  with  30  to  40  per  cent  in  the  check  fields  sur- 
rounding the  plats.  Two  strains  show  excellent  possibilities 
and  offer  hope  that  further  work  in  breeding  this  resistant 
strain  of  winter  wheat  will  enable  our  farmers  to  baffle  the 
infectious  organism  which  is  so  serious  a menace  to  wheat 
culture. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


37 


Corn  Root  Rot  Causes  Heavy  Losses 

Corn  root  rot  has  become  one  of  the  most  important  and 
dangerous  corn  diseases  not  only  in  Wisconsin  but  through- 
out the  corn  belt.  In  1919  conservative  estimates  placed  the 
loss  from  this  malady  at  4 per  cent  of  the  total  corn  crop  of 
the  United  States  or  125,175,000  bushels,  and  the  losses  since 
that  date  have  been  equally  great.  Cooperative  investiga- 
tions with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  have 
been  conducted  during  the  past  season  with  experimental 
work  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  and  La- 
Fayette,  Indiana. 

The  symptoms  of  corn  root  rot  are  very  indefinite,  depend- 
ing as  they  do  upon  the  weather,  upon  the  state  of  maturity 
of  the  corn  plant,  and  upon  the  parasite  which  attacks  the 
plant.  It  has  been  found  that  the  plant  is  attacked,  not  by  one 
organism  only,  but  by  several  different  fungi,  all  of  which  are 
capable  of  producing  a rot  of  the  root  system  of  the  plant.  In 
corn  three  of  the  chief  organisms  are:  (1)  The  wheat  scab 

parasite  (Gibberella  saubinetii),  (2)  the  fungus  causing  the  dry 
ear  rot  of  corn  (Diplodia  zeae),  and  (3)  a corn  seedling  blight 
organism  (Fusarium  moniliforme) . The  first  two  of  these  organ- 
isms produced  a very  severe  seedling  blight  of  corn,  and  the 
wheat  scab  organism  attacked  the  early  planted  corn  which 
germinated  in  a cool  soil,  whereas  the  dry  ear  rot  organism 
attacked  the  late  planted  corn  which  germinated  in  a warm 
soil.  Together  these  two  parasites  often  reduce  the  stand  as 
much  as  50  per  cent.  Even  under  favorable  growing  condi- 
tions the  stand  was  good,  but  a number  of  weak  plants  devel- 
oped which  failed  to  form  ears  of  marketable  corn. 

The  elimination  of  corn  root  rot  disease  must  occupy  more 
and  more  attention.  The  fact  that  the  dry  ear  rot  is  primarily 
a warm  climate  disease  makes  it  improbable  under  ordinary 
conditions  that  much  damage  is  likely  to  occur  to  the  corn 
crop  in  the  seedling  or  later  stages  of  development  as  far  north 
as  Wisconsin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rot  disease  produced 
by  the  wheat  scab  organism  is  more  effective  in  the  northern 
and  the  cooler  parts  of  the  corn  growing  areas. 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Scab  Spoils  Apples  for  Home  or  Market 

Apple  scab  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  fruit  diseases  in 
Wisconsin  and,  unless  controlled,  frequently  renders  crops  of 
the  more  susceptible  varieties  practically  worthless  for  home 
or  market  purposes. 

The  spraying  experiments  by  G.  W.  Keitt  (Plant  Pathology) 
were  continued  from  last  year  in  order  to  determine  the  fol- 
lowing questions:  (1)  the  comparative  merits  of  Bordeaux 
mixture,  lime-sulphur,  and  dry  lime-sulphur  for  scab  control, 
and  (2)  the  most  desirable  time  and  number  of  spray  applica- 
tions. A series  of  dusting  experiments  was  added  to  test 
comparatively  the  following  materials:  (1)  sulphur-lead  arse- 
nate, 90-10;  (2)  copper-lime-lead  arsenate,  10  80-10;  and  (3) 
sulphur-dry  lime-sulphur-lead  arsenate,  75-15-10,  with  varia- 
tions in  the  time  and  number  of  applications. 

The  particularly  dry  spring  and  summer  this  year  so  checked 
the  development  of  apple  scab  that  many  of  the  treatments 
showed  no  difference  in  control.  Again,  as  in  other  seasons, 
Bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  caused  a serious  russeting  of  the 
fruit,  while  a full  program  of  lime-sulphur,  1-40,  and  dry  lime- 
sulphur,  4-50,  gave  a better  finished  product  than  did  Bordeaux 
mixture.  Although  the  dust  applications  usually  gave  some- 
what less  satisfactory  control  of  the  disease  than  did  the 
sprays,  there  was  so  little  scab  this  year  as  to  render  results 
of  doubtful  significance. 

Dust  Treatments  for  Codling  Moth  Control.  Generally, 
codling  moth  control  was  less  satisfactory  on  dusted  than  on 
sprayed  plots.  During  this  summer  season  the  study  of  the 
life  history  and  the  control  of  the  codling  moth  was  carried  on 
at  Sturgeon  Bay  by  L.  K.  Jones  (Plant  Pathology)  employing 
the  same  sprays  as  were  used  to  control  apple  scab.  Four 
varieties  of  apples  were  used  in  this  test;  viz.,  Wealthy,  Lubsk 
Queen,  McIntosh,  and  Snow. 

The  sprays  were  applied  as  follows  : Pre-pink,  May  8;  pink, 
May  14;  calyx,  May  30;  10  days  later,  June  9;  summer  spray, 
August  2.  Dust  treatments  were  made  at  about  the  same 
times  with  extra  applications  applied  May  20  and  June  18 
using  the  same  materials  that  were  applied  for  scab  control. 
Although  the  regular  program  of  five  sprays  of  lime-sulphur, 
1-40,  plus  one  pound  of  lead  arsenate  was  not  generally  satis- 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


39 


factory  in  the  control  of  the  codling  moth,  seven  applications 
of  dust  did  not  prove  as  effective  in  controlling  the  insect  as 
the  five  of  the  lime-sulphur  and  lead-arsenate  spray. 

Control  of  Cherry  Leaf  Spot 

If  the  total  harvest  of  Door  County  cherries  had  been  sent 
fresh  to  market,  600  cars  would  have  been  required  to  carry 
the  crop.  The  aggregate  value  of  this  immense  crop  is  more 
than  one  million  dollars  and,  compared  with  the  1920  crop, 
the  yield  doubled. 

With  such  a valuable  crop,  insurance  by  spraying  is  neces- 
sary if  the  losses  from  diseases  and  insects  are  to  be  prevented, 
and  for  that  purpose  Mr.  Keitt  has  continued  his  investigations 
of  cherry  diseases.  From  year  to  year  new  methods  of  spray- 
ing have  been  developed,  and  now  after  seven  years  of  experi- 
mentation much  progress  in  insuring  the  cherry  crop  has  been 
made.  The  last  spring  and  early  summer  in  Door  County  were 
so  dry  that  development  of.  the  disease  was  checked,  and  at 
harvest  time  only  traces  of  it  could  be  found  on  unsprayed 
trees.  In  ordinary  seasons  such  trees  have  commonly  lost 
most  of  their  leaves  by  harvest  time  and  usually  failed  to  ripen 
their  fruit.  Thus  the  trees  passed  through  the  more  critical 
period  of  the  year  without  injury  from  the  disease;  but  during 
the  later  part  of  August  a rain,  followed  by  a foggy  period 
of  several  days,  occurred.  In  a few  days  there  was  another 
rain,  and  this  unusual  combination  of  conditions  led  to  a rapid 
development  and  spread  of  the  leaf  spot  fungus,  which 
brought  about  heavy  defoliation  in  late  August  and  early  Sep- 
tember on  all  plots  which  received  no  spray  after  harvest. 
While  it  has  ordinarily  been  feasible  to  control  the  disease 
with  only  two  spray  treatments,  in  such  an  unusual  season  a 
spray  after  harvesting  the  crop  must  be  applied.  Three  ap- 
plications of  Bordeaux  mixture,  3-3-50,  applied  as  follows, 
gave  best  results : 

1.  Just  after  the  petals  fall, 

2.  About  two  weeks  later, 

3.  Soon  after  harvest. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  2-2-50,  or  lime-sulphur,  1-40,  gave  less 
satisfactory  control  than  did  the  stronger  Bordeaux  mixture. 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


FIG.  9. — FRUITING  BRANCHES  AND  CANE  FROM  UNSPRAYED 
CUMBERLAND  BLACK  RASPBERRIES. 

Severe  infection  of  anthracnose  on  fruiting-  branches  and  canes 
caused  the  fruit  to  become  dry  and  tasteless  and  will  reduce  next  year’s 
crop  of  berries.  (See  Fig.  10.) 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


41 


The  following  dusts  were  tested  with  varied  times  and 
numbers  of  applications:  sulphur-lead  arsenate,  90-10;  copper- 
lime-lead  arsenate,  10-80-10;  and  sulphur-dry  lime-sulphur- 
lead  arsenate,  75-15-10.  In  general  the  dust  treatments  did 
not  give  satisfactory  control,  although  the  comparison  with 
liquid  spray  cannot  be  satisfactory,  because  the  only  severe 
test  came  nearly  a month  after  the  last  treatment. 

The  results  of  this  season  show  that  it  is  necessary  to  give 
increased  attention  to  the  control  of  leaf  spot  after  harvest. 

Anthracnose  of  Black  Raspberries  Controlled  by  Spraying 

Wisconsin’s  black  raspberry  crop  has  been  greatly  reduced 
by  the  disease  known  as  “anthracnose,”  which  is  particularly 
dangerous  on  the  Cumberland  variety.  During  the  last  two 
seasons  work  has  been  carried  on  at  Madison  by  L.  K.  Jones, 
using  bordeaux  mixture  and  lime-sulphur  with  and  without 
the  addition  of  adhesives. 

These  sprays  were  applied  as  follows : 

(1)  A delayed  dormant  spray,  lime-sulphur,  1-10,  or  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  6-6-50,  after  the  first  two  or  three  leaves  had 
unfolded. 

(2)  A summer  spray,  lime-sulphur,  1-40,  or  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, 3-3-50,  about  one  week  prior  to  blossoming. 

Combinations  of  these  various  sprays  were  used  with  such 
adhesives  as  glue,  gelatin,  and  casein-lime.  On  plants  which 
had  received  the  same  treatment  for  two  seasons,  a delayed 
dormant  spray  of  lime-sulphur  in  combination  with  gelatin  or 
glue,  or  bordeaux  mixture  with  gelatin  controlled  the  dis- 
ease commercially.  Two  sprays,  timed  as  outlined  above,  of 
lime-sulphur  alone  or  in  combination  with  glue  or  gelatin  also 
were  effective ; and  bordeaux  alone  or  in  combination  with 
milk,  gelatin,  glue,  or  casein-lime  controlled  the  disease  com- 
mercially. On  plants  which  had  not  been  well  sprayed  the 
year  before,  no  spray  in  any  single  application  controlled  the 
disease.  Two  sprays  seemed  to  be  necessary  and  may  be 
either  of  lime-sulphur  or  bordeaux  mixture  plus  the  adhesive, 
but  two  sprays  of  lime-sulphur  or  bordeaux  mixture  without 
such  an  adhesive,  as  glue  or  gelatin,  did  not  give  good  con- 
trol. 

Growers  of  black  raspberries  have  here  a method  for  preventing 
the  ravages  from  one  of  their  most  troublesome  diseases,  and 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


one  which  year  after  year  has  been  drying  up  the  young  ripen- 
ing berries  and  reducing  the  yield  in  the  small  fruit  plantings 
of  the  state. 

Early  Cabbage  Selected  for  Resistance  to  Yellows 

Trials  conducted  this  year  at  Racine  by  W.  B.  Tisdale 


FIG.  10.— FRUITING  BRANCHES  AND  CANE  FROM  SPRAYED 
CUMBERLAND  BLACK  RASPBERRIES 


Two  sprays  of  lime-sulphur  plus  gelatin  saved  the  crop.  They  were 
applied  (1)  delayed  dormant,  after  first  two  or  three  leaves  had  un- 
folded, and  (2)  a summer  spray,  one  week  before  blossoming.  The 
disease  was  excellently  controlled,  and  the  crop  increased  30  per  cent 
over  unsprayed  plants.  (See  Fig.  9.) 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


43 


(Plant  Pathology)  were  ^concerned  primarily  with  certain 
early  varieties  of  cabbage.  Interest  was  centered  upon  the 
three  new  possibilities — namely,  Copenhagen  Market,  All  Head 
Early,  'and  Glory  of  Enkhuizen.  A late  variety  and  two  me- 
dium early  kraut  varieties  have  previously  been  developed 
which  are  yellows-resistant,  but  the  first  three  named  are 
the  only  early  varieties  in  which  resistance  to  yellows  has  been 
produced.  These  strains  are  popular  in  certain  localities  where 
cabbage  is  grown  for  the  early  market  or  where  an  early  cut 
of  kraut  is  desired.  The  first  selections  were  made  in  1919 
from  “cabbage  sick”  fields  and  in  1920  seed  was  produced  from 
a few  self-pollinated  plants.  Plants  from  this  seed  were  set  in 
“sick”  soil  in  1921  and  all  selections  showed  a high  degree  of 
resistance  in  combination  with  a fair  degree  of  earliness  and 
good  type.  The  Glory  of  Enkhuizen  selections  showed  a high 
percentage  of  resistance  but  were  a little  later  in  maturing 
than  the  commercial  parent  strain.  Further  selections  from 
these  trials  were  made  in  1921.  An  effort  will  be  made  to 
grow  seed  from  them  in  the  greenhouse,  and  trials  from  these 
selections  may  then  be  grown  on  “sick”  soil  in  1922. 

Club  Root  of  Cabbage  Affected  by  Soil  Temperature 
and  Soil  Moisture 

The  studies  on  the  effect  of  soil  temperature  and  soil  mois- 
ture on  plant  diseases  of  fungus  origin  have  been  extended  this 
year* by  J.  Monteith,  Jr.,  (Plant  Pathology)  on  the  club  root 
of  cabbage  ( Plasmodiophora  brassicae).  He  grew  cabbage 
plants  in  club  root  infested  soil  held  at  various  degrees  of 
temperature  and  at  various  percentages  of  moisture.  The  dis- 
ease developed  through  a wide  range  of  temperature,  48°  F, 
to  86°  F.,  while  the  most  active  development  of  the  disease  was 
at  about  68°  F.  Club  root  did  not  develop  in  most  of  the  soils 
used  when  they  were  held  at  a moisture  content  below  one-half 
of  their  water-holding  capacity.  At  a higher  moisture  con- 
tent, the  disease  appeared  in  much  severer  form.  Avoidance 
of  poorly  drained  land  for  cabbage  culture  is,  therefore,  im- 
portant in  controlling  this  disease. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Pea  Anthracnose  Found  in  Wisconsin 

• 

In  two  localities  of  the  pea-growing  region  during  1912  and 
1920,  F.  R.  Jones  and  R.  E.  Vaughan  (Plant  Pathology)  found 
great  damage  caused  by  the  pea  anthracnose.  At  present  the 
parasite  appears  to  be  of  limited  distribution  in  America,  but 
it  readily  infects  all  species  of  the  genus  Pisum  that  were  tried. 
The  fungus  first  appeared  in  Wisconsin  in  1912,  but  no  fur- 
ther outbreak  was  observed  until  1920  although  at  both  times 
it  caused  even  greater  destruction  than  that  commonly  caused 
by  any  of  the  well-known  pea  parasites.  Pea  anthracnose 
(caused  by  Colie totrichum  pisi  Pat.)  was  first  collected  in  1891 
in  Equador,  South  America,  and  while  the  Wisconsin  fungus 
did  not  agree  with  the  description,  a comparison  of  specimens 
proved  their  identity.  In  Japan  the  fungus  is  widespread  but 
causes  relatively  small  damage. 

Lesions  of  the  disease  on  leaves  are  irregular  in  shape, 
smoky  gray  or  brown  toward  the  margin  and  lighter  in  color 
tending  toward  a brown  at  the  center.  On  pods  the  lesions 
are  usually  lighter  in  color,  more  nearly  circular  in  shape,  and 
dark  brown  at  the  margin,  while  on  stems  the  lesions  are 
elongate,  rarely  encircling  the  stem  and,  when  covered  with 
spores,  are  ashen  when  dry  and  copper-colored  when  moist. 
Slender  bristles  or  setae  are  sometimes  produced  so  abundantly 
upon  stems  that  they  can  be  seen  with  a hand  lens.  When  the 
stems  are  nearly  mature  the  fungus  may  form,  in  moist 
weather,  rusty  areas  of  considerable  extent  where  spores  are 
produced  in  tiny  masses. 

Warm  Soil  Reduces  Onion  Smut 

Onion  smut  is  a seedling  disease  which  reduces  the  stand 
early  in  the  season.  It  is  disseminated  from  one  locality  to 
another  on  onion  sets  or  upon  the  seed.  Starting  in  the  eastern 
states,  it  has  spread  gradually  across  the  continent  until  now 
practically  all  large  onion  sections  of  our  northern  states  suffer 
from  its  ravages.  In  the  southern  onion  sections,  however, 
which  have  been  equally  exposed,  the  disease  has  not  appeared. 

This  peculiar  situation  led  to  the  surmise  that  the  infection 
of  the  onion  plant  by  the  smut  fungus  might  be  favored  by  a 

* In  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Office,  Cotton,  Truck  and  Forage  Crop  Diseases. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


45 


low  soil  temperature.  Testing  this  hypothesis  experimentally, 
L.  R.  Jones  and  J.  C.  Walker  (United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture)  found  that  in  a cool  soil  (60°  F.)  the  progress 
of  the  disease  was  facilitated,  while  at  temperatures  of  84°  F. 
or  above,  the  development  of  the  disease  was  completely  pre- 


FIG.  ll.^TEMPERATURE  AND  MOISTURE  INFLUENCE  PLANT 


DISEASE 

With  these  cases  the  possible  seasonal  changes  in  hot  and  moist 
weather  can  be  duplicated  in  the  laboratory. 


vented.  Moreover,  they  found  that  the  onion  plant  is  not  sub- 
ject to  infection  except  for  only  a short  period  after  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  This  finding  has  a definite  practical 
bearing  on  the  fact  that  in  northern  sections,  where  the  soil 
temperature  is  lower  at  sowing  time,  the  onion  crop  suffers 
more  from  the  disease  than  in  the  South,  where  the  onion  seed 
is  sown  in  August  and  September. 

Tobacco  Diseases  Studied 

Wisconsin  is  the  cigar  binder  state  of  the  Union.  While 
the  growing  of  this  crop  is  restricted  to  a few  counties,  the 
value  of  it  in  1920  was  over  sixteen  million  dollars. 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


During  the  past  year  the  Horticultural  Department  has 
operated  three  air-control  chambers  in  which  plants  could  be 
exposed  to  constant  conditions  of  air  temperature  and  hu- 
midity as  long  as  desired.  Two  diseases  of  tobacco,  mosaic 
and  the  so-called  “wildfire,”  a bacterial  leaf  spot  which  has 
recently  caused  a great  deal  of  concern  in  the  southern  and 
eastern  states,  have  been  studied. 


Influence 
of  Mosaic 
on  Tobacco 

A— F.  68° 
B — F.  86° 
C— F.  97° 


Influence 
of  temper- 
ature on 
Potato 
Blight 

A — F.  82° 
B— F.  88° 
C — F.  97° 


FIG.  12.— RELATION  OF  TEMPERATURE  TO  PLANT  DISEASES 


Mosaic.  Results  obtained  by  James  Johnson  (Horticulture) 
with  this  disease  are  especially  interesting  since  they  stir  up 
a controversy  of  long  standing  as  to  the  nature  of  the  causal 
agent.  Is  this  transmissible  disease  caused  by  an  invading 
parasite  too  small  to  be  seen  by  our  most  powerful  micro- 
scopes, or  is  it  due  to  enzyme  action  within  the  plant?  Air- 
control  experiments  have  shown  that  the  prevalence  of  mosaic 
disease  is  most  marked  at  a temperature  of  about  86°  F.,  and 
while  it  is  practically  non-existent  at  97°  F.,  at  this  tempera- 
ture there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  amount  of  enzyme 
action  is  less  than  at  the  lower  temperature.  This  response  to 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


47 


temperature  conditions  corresponds  quite  closely  to  that  of  the 
behavior  of  a large  number  of  well  known  plant  parasites  and 
increases  the  probability  that  this  trouble  is  due  to  a yet  undis- 
covered organism. 

Wildfire.  The  wildfire  tobacco  leaf-spot  disease  was  found 
to  develop  most  markedly  between  82°  F.  and  91°  F.,  although 
it  could  infect  its  host  at  a temperature  as  low  as  59°  F.  and 
as  high  as  98°  F.  Its  alarming  development  in  this  state  this 
summer  was  no  doubt  facilitated  by  the  unusual  temperature 
conditions. 

Warm  Weather  Reduces  Root-Rot  of  Tobacco.  Recent  ex- 
periments in  the  laboratories  have  shown  that  relatively  cold 
soil  favors  root-rot  of  tobacco ; warm  soil  reduces  the  disease. 
Field  observations  made  over  a number  of  seasons  have  con- 
firmed these  conclusions.  Warm  weather  in  the  summer  of 
1921  was  especially  interesting,  particularly  when  compared 
with  the  cold  growing  season  of  1915.  One  of  the  experiment 
station  tobacco  fields  which  has  grown  tobacco  continually 
for  over  fifteen  years  and  is  consequently  very  badly  infested 
with  root-rot,  grew  a good  crop  of  even  the  most  susceptible 
varieties  in  1921  due,  undoubtedly,  to  the  influence  of  the 
warmer  weather.  A similar  condition  was  true  practically  all 
over  the  United  States  this  year.  As  an  example  of  the  effect 
of  weather,  in  1915,  a cold  season,  the  yield  of  tobacco  of  six 
different  commercial  strains  was  reduced  when  grown  on  rot- 
infected  soil  from  50  per  cent  to  95  per  cent ; while  in  the  warm 
season  of  1921  the  per  cent  decrease  in  weight  of  the  same 
strains  grown  on  “sick”  soil  was  from  15  per  cent  to  50  per 
cent.  The  mean  temperature  for  June,  July,  and  August  1921 
was  about  10°  F.  greater  than  that  of  the  corresponding  pe- 
riod in  1915.  These  field  data  indicate  that  temperature  ex- 
erts a very  great  influence  on  rot-infected  soil  which  may  cut 
the  yield  of  tobacco,  by  reason  of  the  disease  alone,  more  than 
half.  This  undoubtedly  explains  why  so  many  soils  may  grow 
an  excellent  crop  one  year  and  fail  to  produce  even  a half  crop 
the  following  year.  While  the  farmer  can  not  control  the 
weather,  he  can  learn  many  profitable  lessons  from  these  re- 
sults, namely: 

1.  Rotate  your  tobacco  field,  using  non-infected  land;  or  else 
plant  disease-resistant  strains,  for  a cold  summer  may 


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otherwise  permit  of  unusual  rot  development  in  old  in- 
fested fields. 

2.  Cropping  to  tobacco  does  not  wear  out  the  soil ; it  makes 
it  “sick,”  but  a lot  of  fertilizer  can  be  wasted  in  trying  to 
make  sick  soil  grow  tobacco  in  any  but  the  warmest 
seasons. 

Stand-up  Burley  Developed.  The  root-rot  resistant  White 
Burley  tobacco  previously  developed  had  drooping  leaves. 
Now  the  growers  want  erect  leaves  or  “stand-up”  Burley.  Ac- 
cordingly the  resistant  drooping  type  was  crossed  with  the 
erect  susceptible  type  of  tobacco,  that  is,  the  tobacco  which 
was  affected  by  the  root-rot  organism.  In  1921  the  F-4  gen- 
eration was  grown,  and  several  uniform  types  resistant  and 
erect  are  now  at  hand  which  are  very  promising. 

Late  Potato  Blight  Kills  in  Warm  Weather 

By  using  air  control  chambers,  Mr.  Johnson  studied  the  ef- 
fect of  cold  moist  air  conditions  and  hot  moist  air  upon  the 
infection  and  growth  of  the  potato  blight  disease  (Phytoph- 
thora).  Other  investigation  has  shown  that  chill  weather 
favors  the  infection  while  the  destructive  ability  and  growth 
of  the  disease  is  worst  at  77°  F.  to  91°  F.  The  investigations 
show  that  potato  blight  disease  is  a relatively  vigorous  para- 
site at  temperatures  as  high  as  91°  F.  to  95°  F.  Thus,  while 
the  disease  infection  is  helped  by  cool  humid  weather,  it 
thrives  best  during  warm  moist  weather. 

Varieties  of  Currants  and  Gooseberries  for  Wisconsin 

Studies  to  determine  the  principal  varieties  of  currants  and 
gooseberries  for  Wisconsin  have  been  conducted  by  J.  G. 
Moore  (Horticulture)  for  several  years.  Taking  into  consid- 
eration the  yield,  size  of  berries,  size  of  bunches  and  suscep- 
tibility to  disease,  the  following  varieties  of  currents  and 
gooseberries  have  been  found  to  be  most  useful  in  Wisconsin: 
Currants — Perfection,  Pomona,  Wilder,  Red  Cross.  North 
Star  is  a very  heavy  producing  variety,  but  the  berries  are 


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49 


small.  Two  varieties  of  gooseberries  which  stood  out  above 
all  the  other  varieties  tested  are  Downing  and  Pearl. 

Insects  Eat  Profits  From  Farmers'  Income 

During  the  summer  of  1921  serious  outbreaks  occurred  of 
three  different  insects — grasshoppers,  the  corn  ear  worm,  and 
the  northern  tobacco  worm.  The  grasshoppers  were  again  bad 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  state,  especially  in  Door  County 


FIG.  13. — CORN  EAR  WORM  IS  A DESTRUCTIVE  FEEDER 

This  insect  was  unusually  severe  in  Wisconsin  this  year,  and  al- 
though especially  injurious  to  the  sweet  corn,  the  field  corn  suffered  as 

well. 

where  the  loss  was  estimated  at  over  $200,000,  while  the  corn 
ear  worm  was  particularly  abundant  this  year,  and  many  sam- 
ples of  injured  corn  have  been  sent  in  for  inspection.  No  spe- 
cific remedy  is  known,  for  the  adult  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
outside  of  the  shuck,  and  the  young  worm  enters  at  the  end. 
The  northern  tobacco  worm  or  tomato  worm  caused  consider- 
able injury  to  tobacco  because  the  season  was  peculiarly  favor- 
able for  its  development.  Ordinarily  only  one  crop  of  worms 
develops  from  this  insect  in  the  spring;  but  this  year,  due  to 
exceedingly  favorable  conditions  for  growth,  a second  genera- 


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tion  of  worms  emerged  in  the  later  part  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember. Control  measures,  in  which  a dust  application  of  1 
part  arsenate  of  lead,  8 parts  air-slaked  lime,  or  a spray  of  2 
pounds  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water  is  used,  prove 
an  effectual  means  of  controlling  this  trouble. 


FIG.  14.— KILL  TOBACCO  HORN  WORMS  WITH  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

Poison  the  Grasshopper.  The  long-continued  hot  dry 
weather  helped  to  aggravate  the  situation  by  drying  up  the 
grasshoppers’  natural  feeding  places  so  that  they  flew  in  great 
numbers  to  the  grain  and  hay  fields.  Although  many  tons  of 
poison  bait  were  used  and  as  a result  the  loss  was  greatly  re- 
duced, yet  many  thousand  dollars  worth  of  farm  products 
were  eaten  by  the  insects.  In  many  cases  sawdust  was  sub- 
stituted for  bran,  but  the  experiments  carried  on  by  C.  L. 
Fluke  (Economic  Entomology)  at  Egg  Harbor  in  Door 


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51 


County  were  not  as  satisfactory  as  where  bran  had  been 
used.  The  tests  with  banana  oil  and  salt  were  found  to  be 
more  attractive  than  either  banana  oil  or  salt  alone.  The 
poison  mixture  far  superior  to  all  the  others  was  composed 
of  bran,  arsenic,  salt,  and  banana  oil. 

The  severity  of  the  grasshopper  outbreak  in  some  of  the 
northern  counties  is  intensified  because  many  farms  are  bor- 


FIG.  15.— GRASSHOPPERS  ATE  $200,000  WORTH  OF  CROPS  IN  ONE 

COUNTY 

This  pasture  has  been  stripped  of  all  green  vegetable  matter  by 
grasshoppers.  Poison  bait  applied  not  by  one  farmer  alone  but  by  the 
entire  community  cooperatively  will  cut  down  the  ravages  of  the  pest. 

dered  by  waste  land  (slashings  and  old  pastures)  and  such 
property  is  often  owned  by  non-residents.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  hold  these  pests  in  check  by  poisoning  a strip  a rod 
or  two  wide  around  the  cultivated  fields,  but  this  precaution 
proved  unavailing.  As  soon  as  the  grasshoppers  develop 
wings,  they  fly  for  a considerable  distance  into  the  grain  fields, 
feeding  upon  the  developing  heads  and  in  many  instances  re- 
ducing the  yield  as  much  as  75  per  cent  to  90  per  cent.  A few 
farmers  saved  part  of  their  crop  by  harvesting  just  &s  soon 
as  the  grasshoppers  started  their  march  into  the  fields;  but  if 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained,  the  entire  community  where 
the  pest  occurs  must  cooperate  thoroughly  to  poison  the 
grasshoppers  by  combined  effort. 


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Cherry  Aphis  Saps  Strength  From  Trees 

About  the  middle  of  July,  just  as  the  late  cherries  were  be- 
ginning to  ripen,  the  black  cherry  aphis  became  so  abundant 
in  Door  County  that  many  trees  shed  their  foliage.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Fluke,  who  was  located  for  the  season  in  Door 
County,  this  sapping  of  the  trees’  strength  so  delayed  the 
process  of  ripening  that  quantities  of  the  cherries  were  unfit  for 
food,  being  rather  bitter  and  undersized.  So  severe  was  this 
attack  that  for  the  first  time  on  record,  the  leaves  began  to 
disappear  from  the  trees.  Some  were  almost  bare  of  foliage, 
while  on  others  only  half  of  the  leaves  remained.  Coming  as 


FIG.  16.—  HOW  THE  APHIS  CUTS  THE  CHERRY  CROP 

The  branches  on  each  side  were  almost  stripped  of  foliage  by  the 
aphis,  while  the  cherries  were  still  green.  The  central  branch  is  normal 
and  shows  the  cherries  almost  ready  to  pick. 


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53 


it  did  when  some  of  the  cherries  were  still  green,  the  attack 
was  very  serious. 

A peculiar  characteristic  of  the  situation  was  the  sudden  dis- 
appearance of  the  aphis  shortly  after  the  injury  appeared.  The 
trees  began  to  recover,  but  how  completely  they  have  recov- 
ered will  be  determined  by  the  development  of  foliage  and 
fruit  next  summer.  Control  measures  for  this  test  have  yet 
to  be  determined  as  it  is  necessary  to  decide  whether  it  is  best 
to  spray  regularly  in  the  spring  when  the  plant  lice  are  first 
hatching  or  to  wait  till  the  season  is  more  advanced.  Nicotine 
sulphate  and  soap  was  used  on  the  aphis  this  summer  in  the 
amount  of  1 part  of  nicotine  sulphate  to  1,000  of  water  and  2 
pounds  of  soap  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

Pea  Moth  Threatens  Dry  Pea  Industry 

From  an  acreage  of  78,000  in  1909  the  area  of  dry  peas  de- 
clined to  66,000  in  1919  and  56,000  in  1920.  While  the  low 
market  prices  undoubtedly  have  some  effect,  the  hazard  of 
loss  from  the  pea  moth  has  undoubtedly  curtailed  the  produc- 
tion of  the  crop.  In  1920  the  production  was  1,063,000  bushels 
compared  to  1,165,000  bushels  in  1919,  although  the  average 
yield  was  at  the  same  time  increased  from  13.3  to  19  bushels 
an  acre  with  a farm  value  of  nearly  $2,000,000  in  19,20.  If  the 
safety  of  this  crop  can  be  secured  it  will  mean  much  for  the 
farmers  of  upper  and  eastern  Wisconsin. 

For  some  time  it  has  not  been  possible  to  say  whether  the 
pea  moth  could  be  held  in  check  or  not,  but  now  proper  cul- 
tural practices  show  that  this  insect  can  be  checked  and  the 
injury  reduced  from  25  per  cent  to  2 or  3 per  cent.  Mr.  Fluke 
recommends  the  following  preventive  measures : 

1.  Select  early  varieties  and  plant  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
the  soil  will  permit. 

2.  Do  not  plant  peas  in  the  same  plot  or  near  the  same  plot 
two  years  in  succession.  Apparently  the  moths  do  not  fly 
far  and  the  greater  the  distance  from  the  old  fields  where  the 
larvae  pupate  in  the  soil  the  less  the  infestation.  Only  too 
often  the  farmer  across  the  road  puts  in  peas  and  offers  a 
tempting  place  for  his  neighbor’s  moths  which  thrived  the 
year  before. 


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3.  About  the  time  of  flight  of  the  moths,  the  winds  prevail 
in  a northerly  direction,  and  it  has  been  found  that  fields  which 
have  been  planted  south,  or  even  east  or  west,  of  the  previous 
year’s  plantings  suffer  less  than  those  to  the  north.  Neighbor- 
hood cooperation  will  do  much  to  eliminate  the  pea  moth. 

Bees  and  Honey  on  the  Increase  in  Wisconsin 

Although  Wisconsin  had  only  96,000  colonies  of  bees  in 
1910,  on  February  1,  1921,  it  was  estimated  that  there  were 
121,000  colonies  with  a total  farm  value  of  over  a million  dol- 
lars. With  such  a promising  young  industry  under  way,  at- 
tention can  well  be  paid  to  determining  the  causes  of  losses 
and  to  provide  better  methods  for  keeping  our  colonies  free 
from  disease. 

Wintering  Bees.  The  successful  wintering  of  bees  is  one 
of  the  most  important  problems  which  confronts  the  apiary 
owner  in  Wisconsin.  Tests  made  by  H.  F.  Wilson  and  J.  I. 
Hambleton  (Economic  Entomology)  show  that  bees  will  win- 
ter over  on  sugar  syrup  alone.  The  advantage  of  sugar  syrup 
stores  is  that  they  contain  less  impurities  than  some  honey. 
When  poor,  impure  stores  are  used,  the  intestines  of  the  bee 
become  clogged  causing  dysentery.  To  rid  itself  of  this  ma- 
terial the  bee  will  fly  out  into  the  cellar,  become  lost  and  die. 

Experiments  in  the  fall  of  1920  showed  the  following  re- 
sults : Bees  wintered  on  both  boiled  and  unboiled  syrups 

came  through  in  equally  good  condition.  It  was  noted  that 
boiled  syrup  did  not  crystallize  as  quickly  as  unboiled  syrup 
due  to  the  slight  inversion  during  the  boiling  process.  In 
tests  made  to  determine  how  much  sugar  syrup  should  be  fed 
to  a colony  of  bees,  all  honey  in  the  hive  was  replaced  by  30 
pounds  of  sugar  syrup.  The  colony  was  kept  on  the  scales 
during  the  entire  operation,  and  it  was  found  in  seven  days  that 
the  weight  of  the  stores  decreased  from  30  pounds  of  syrup  to 
18  pounds  of  honey. 

Use  Package  Bees  for  Restocking.  Package  bees  have  been 
an  excellent  means  of  restocking  depleted  apiaries  and  in  many 
cases  for  starting  new  yards.  The  packages  are  shipped  from 
southern  states  in  the  early  spring  and  form  the  nuclei  for  the 
colonies  which  are  to  build  up  in  time  for  the  honey  flow  in 


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55 


June  and  July.  Package  bees  received  from  Texas  were  put 
in  hives  containing  (1)  full  sheets  of  foundation  and  (2)  full 
sets  of  drawn  combs  with  a little  honey.  Sugar  syrup  was 
then  fed  to  all  colonies  until  they  were  able  to  gather  nectar 
from  the  field. 

The  package  bees  were  received  on  April  25  and  imme- 
diately placed  in  the  hives,  a record  being  kept  of  the  increase 
from  May  5 to  June  10.  The  results  indicated  that  it  is  more 
profitable  to  use  drawn  combs  for  package  bees  when  they  are 


FIG.  17.— BEES  NEED  WATER. 

This  hive  took  down  20  pounds  of  water  during-  the  spring  brood 
rearing  season. 

available.  No  comparison  could  be  made  on  honey  yields, 
because  none  of  the  colonies  were  able  to  gather  a normal 
surplus  due  to  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  the  experi- 
ment station  is  forced  to  operate  its  educational  apiary  in  the 
city  at  distances  so  remote  from  nectar-bearing  fields. 

Water  for  Bees  in  the  Spring.  Bees  use  considerable 
amounts  of  water  in  the  spring  during  brood  rearing.  It  has 


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been  suggested  by  some  beekeepers  that  if  this  water  was 
available  in  the  hive,  the  bees  would  not  go  out  during  cold 
weather  and  become  numbed  and  lost  as  they  are  known  to  do. 
Last  spring  in  a series  of  experiments  by  the  Economic  Ento- 
mology Department  measurements  were  made  from  April  1 
to  May  31. 

Water  was  fed  by  means  of  graduated  flasks  covered  with 
a double  thickness  of  cheese  cloth,  which  were  then  inverted 
over  the  hives  so  that  the  bees  could  take  the  liquid  through 
the  cheese  cloth.  On  five  colonies  pure  water  only  was  avail- 
able to  the  bees ; on  three  a flask  of  water  and  one  of  a 2 to 
100  salt  solution  were  placed  to  see  whether  or  not  the  bees 
would  take  the  salt  water  in  preference  to  plain  water.  The 
amount  of  liquids  taken  varied  considerably,  but  the  largest 
amount  of  water  used  by  one  colony  was  4.62  gallons  for  the 
two  months  period,  while  the  colony  fed  sugar  syrup  and  water 
at  the  same  time  carried  down  5.3  gallons  of  sugar  syrup  and 
4.7  gallons  of  water.  When  water  and  a salt  solution  were 
given  to  the  bees,  both  water  and  salt  water  were  taken  down, 
but  the  salt  solution  only  in  small  quantities.  No  noticeable 
difference  was  observed  upon  the  flight  of  the  bees  between 
those  which  were  given  water  and  those  which  were  kept  in 
the  apiary.  • 

Potato  Leaf  Hopper  Causes  Hopperburn 

The  potato  leaf  hopper  is  one  of  the  most  important  pests 
of  the  potato  in  the  United  States.  Not  only  does  it  suck  the 
juice  from  the  plants  so  that  the  foliage  turns  yellow  and  the 
leaves  curl  and  wither,  but  a diseased  condition,  hopperburn, 
is  in  some  manner  produced,  which  causes  the  foliage  to 
blacken  and  die. 

Why  such  a condition  should  follow  the  raids  of  the  leaf 
hopper  is  not  well  understood,  but  the  indications  are  that  a 
toxin  or  possibly  a disease  is  transmitted  through  the  feeding 
punctures  of  the  leaf  hopper.  Hopperburn  begins  with  a slight 
yellowing,  usually  at  the  leaf  tip,  and  later  the  leaf  turns 
brown,  curls  upward,  and  withers.  The  disease  spreads  from 
the  tip  or  margin  toward  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  but  spreads 
more  slowly  toward  the  base.  During  periods  of  hot  dry 
weather  hopperburn  spreads  rapidly  and  whole  fields  of  early 
potatoes  may  be  killed  in  a week. 


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57 


Previously  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  J.  E.  Dudley  (Eco- 
nomic Entomology)  that  spraying  bordeaux  mixture  upon 
both  top  and  under  side  of  the  leaves  will  control  the  leaf  hop- 
per and  the  following  hopperburn.  A high  pressure  (150 
pounds  at  least)  is  used  in  applying  the  spray  to  cover  the 


Large  hiberna- 
cages  used  in 
hopperburn 
experiments 


FIG.  18.— LEAF  HOPPER  CARRIES  HOPPERBURN 

Two  plants  of  Rural  New  Yorker  potatoes  caged.  Plant  on  left  kept 
free  from  leaf  hoppers,  shows  no  hopperburn;  plant  on  right  infested 
with  leaf  hoppers,  nearly  dead  from  hopperburn. 

leaves  with  a very  fine  mist.  While  these  practices  have 
given  excellent  results,  in  1921  three  types  of  experiments 
were  conducted  by  Mr.  Dudley  to  determine  more  of  the 
potato  leaf  hopper  control ; namely,  the  effect  of  planting  dates 
upon  the  appearance  of  leaf  hoppers,  the  severity  of  hopper- 
burn and  yields,  the  effect  of  none,  one,  two,  and  three  spray- 
ings upon  the  yield  of  potatoes,  and  selection  of  seed  tubers 
from  vines  resistant  to  hopperburn. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  3,39 


While  the  results  during  this  season  were  hampered  decid- 
edly by  the  hot  dry  weather,  nevertheless  the  two  early  vari- 
eties secured  a good  start  by  the  middle  of  June,  and  had  over 
twice  the  foliage  as  the  same  varieties  planted  two  weeks 
later.  The  yield  was  considerably  greater  than  it  could 
have  been  with  late  planting  in  such  a season.  The  leaf  hop- 
pers and  hopperburn  appeared  on  the  potatoes  as  follows: 


Triumphs  ...  Leaf  hoppers  June  6 — Hopperburn  June  13 

Early  Ohios  Leaf  hoppers  June  8 — Hopperburn  June  13 

Green  Mountains  ....Leaf  hoppers  June  13 — Hopperburn  June  20 

Rurals  Leaf  hoppers  June  13 — Hopperburn  June  25 


Part  of  each  plot  was  left  untreated  until  hopperburn  threat- 
ened to  become  severe.  Thus  the  Triumph  plot  had  to  be 
treated  on  June  24,  and  even  with  frequent  treatments  from 
that  time  on  the  plants  went  down  with  hopperburn  quite  rap- 
idly. Parts  of  the  other  three  plots  were  not  treated  all  sum- 
mer and  yet  were  not  seriously  affected  by  hopperburn  until 
well  into  August.  This  was  quite  different  from  previous  ob- 
servations, for  in  past  seasons  unsprayed  potato  patches  and 
fields  were  seen  to  succumb  to  hopperburn  during  hot  dry 
weather  within  two  weeks’  time.  However,  despite  the  ab- 
sence of  the  usual  hopperburn  ravages,  yields  were  found  to 
be  much  greater  for  treated  rows  than  for  untreated  ones. 

Four  varieties — Triumphs,  Early  Ohios,  Green  Mountains 
and  Rurals — were  planted  in  a field  and  divided  into  four  equal 
parts.  One  part  was  sprayed  three  times  with  bordeaux  mix- 
ture 4-4-50  and  lead  arsenate  lJ^-50;  one  quarter  was  sprayed 
twice;  one  quarter  once;  and  the  last  quarter  was  left  un- 
sprayed. Here,  again,  the  experiment  could  not  give  excep- 
tional results,  for  the  Triumphs  were  practically  dead,  the 
Early  Ohios  were  yellow  and  dying,  and  the  Rurals  were  not 
growing  rapidly  on  August  17,  although  the  yields  were  slight- 
ly larger  on  the  plots  sprayed  two  and  three  times. 

The  potato  leaf  hopper  is  particularly  dangerous,  because 
it  is  followed  by  the  hopperburn.  Caged  potatoes  on  which 
no  leaf  hoppers  occurred  developed  no  hopperburn.  Caged 
potatoes  into  which  a few  hoppers  gained  entrance  developed 
a slight  amount  of  burn,  while  potatoes  infected  with  a large 
number  of  hoppers  became  badly  diseased,  some  of  them  dying. 


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59 


Furthermore,  in  a muskmelon  field  which  was  being  ex- 
amined off-colored  leaves  were  found  in  the  middle  of  several 
hills.  When  further  examined,  they  showed  clear-cut  symp- 
toms of  hopperburn,  and  large  numbers  of  the  leaf  hopper 
adults  and  nymphs  appeared  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
The  burn  was  found  only  on  the  hills  infested  with  the  hop- 
pers, thus  showing  that  another  commercial  crop  is  susceptible 
to  the  hopperburn  and  that  muskmelons  must  also  be  pro- 
tected. 

Nicotine  Dusts  Employed  Against  Insects 

Recently  a method  has  been  devised  for  using  nicotine  sul- 
phate in  a dust  carrier.  Experiments  were  conducted  by 
John  E.  Dudley,  Jr.,  (Economic  Entomology,  cooperating 
with  U.  S.  D.  A.)  regarding  the  control  of  nine  insects:  striped 
and  twelve-spotted  cucumber  beetles,  eggs  and  larvae  of  the 
Colorado  potato  beetle,  the  two  common  cabbage  worms,  the 
melon  aphid,  squash  bug,  potato  leaf  hopper,  and  onion  thrips. 
Nicotine  sulphate  combined  with  rock  lime,  4 per  cent  and  6 
per  cent  nicotine  sulphate  content,  was  used  and  a new  com 
bination,  nicotine-bordeaux  dust,  was  prepared  at  the  labor- 
atory by  spraying  nicotine  sulphate  evenly  on  trays  of  pow- 
dered monohydrated  copper  sulphate  and  lime,  which  is  essen- 
tially uncombined  bordeaux,  a product  sold  by  one  of  the 
insecticide  companies.  When  sprayed  with  the  nicotine,  this 
product  heated  up,  partially  turned  to  bordeaux,  and  resulted 
in  a very  fine  dry  powder,  which  was  used  at  two  strengths — 
4 per  cent  and  6 per  cent  nicotine-sulphate  content.  While 
the  nicotine-lime  lost  strength  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  often  falling  off  60  per  cent  in  killing  power  after  an  ex- 
posure of  six  days,  the  nicotine-bordeaux  under  similar  con- 
ditions of  humidity  proved  more  stable  and  lost  only  10  per 
cent  in  killing  power. 

Cucumber  Beetle.  Nicotine-bordeaux  proved  most  satis- 
factory for  the  control  of  this  insect — in  the  insectary  nico- 
tine-lime killed  from  80  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  of  the  beetles 
treated,  in  the  field  cages  only  63  per  cent,  while  the  nicotine- 
bordeaux  killed  100  per  cent  and  93  per  cent  respectively. 
In  the  field,  however,  both  dusts  proved  unsatisfactory  until  a 
large,  specially-made,  canvas  cone  lowered  to  the  ground 
over  each  plant  was  employed.  This  made  it  possible  to  hit 
a large  number  of  the  elusive  beetles;  yet  again  the  nicotine- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


lime  killed  only  15  per  cent  while  the  new  spray  destroyed 
60  per  cent. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle.  A large  number  of  potato  beetle 
egg  masses  were  dusted  with  nicotine-lime  4 per  cent.  Of 
the  lot  only  25  per  cent  hatched,  while  75  per  cent  of  the  un- 
treated hatched.  When  the  larvae  in  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  stages  were  dusted  with  nicotine-lime,  90  per  cent  were 
killed. 

Cabbage  Worms.  Difficulty  was  encountered  in  driving  the 
dust  to  these  feeders,  for  the  worms  work  deep  in  the  head 
and  under  protecting  leaves.  Tests  showed,  however,  that 
with  nicotine-lime  4 per  cent  only  60  per  cent  of  the  worms 
were  killed,  nicotine-bordeaux  killing  78  per  cent. 

Melon  Aphid.  A field  of  cucumbers  heavily  infested  with 
aphids  was  dusted  with  the  nicotine-bordeaux,  a cone  being 
employed  with  the  dust  pipe  from  the  blower  entering  at  the 
base  instead  of  at  the  top.  This  allowed  the  dust  to  be  di- 
rected against  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  and  practically 
every  aphid  was  killed. 

Squash  Bug.  Again  nicotine-lime  proved  satisfactory, 
while  nicotine-bordeaux  used  against  the  young  in  various 
stages  killed  90  per  cent  in  the  insectary;  and,  when  the  oper- 
ations were  conducted  in  the  field,  an  equally  high  percentage 
was  found  dead  four  hours  after  dusting. 

Potato  Leaf  Hopper.  A row  of  large  potato  vines  heavily 
infested  with  adults  and  young  of  the  potato  leaf  hopper  was 
dusted  with  nicotine-lime  4 per  cent  and  nicotine-bordeaux. 
Hundreds  of  the  insects  fell  on  canvas  laid  along  the  row  and 
all  were  dead  a few  hours  later,  both  dusts  proving  equally 
effective.  The  dusts  were  further  applied  to  infested  bean 
plants  by  use  of  a cone;  and,  although  the  curled  leaves 
offered  protection  to  the  leaf  hoppers,  92  per  cent  of  the  in- 
sects were  killed.  Nicotine-bordeaux  used  in  large  potato 
plots  entirely  freed  the  vines  of  leaf  hoppers  in  a short  time. 

Onion  Thrips.  Both  dusts  proved  effective  against  this 
insect.  Plots  selected  which  contained  approximately  20,000 
thrips  each  were  cleaned  up,  and  only  one  per  cent  living 
thrips  were  found. 


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61 


Conclusions 

Given  a higher  nicotine  content  and  improved  methods  of 
application,  such  as  a machine  throwing  a dust  cloud,  it  is 
believed  that  in  the  nicotine  dusts  we  have  a new  type  of 
insecticide  which  promises  to  be  of  considerable  value  against 
many  chewing  and  sucking  insects.  It  is  not  proposed,  how- 
ever, that  these  dusts  should  replace  the  arsenicals  against 
such  insects  as  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  and  cabbage  worms. 
Like  all  contact  insecticides  the  dust  must  hit  and  cover  the 
insects  treated.  Against  the  cucumber  beetles  these  dusts 
are  far  more  effective  when  the  adults  are  hit  while  in  flight 
than  when  dusted  at  rest.  Against  many  sucking  insects  the 
dusts,  especially  nicotine-bordeaux,  give  promise  of  offering 
a control  equal  to  that  of  the  best  sprays. 


FIG.  19.— DUSTING  CUCUMBERS  FOR  THE  STRIPED  CUCUMBER 

BEETLE 

Nicotine-bordeaux  is  effective  when  the  cone  is  kept  over  the  plant 

for  thirty  seconds. 

How  Far  Does  Cucumber  Beetle  Fly? 

In  order  to  gain  a better  understanding  of  the  migrations 
and  concentrations  of  the  cucumber  beetle  during  the  spring 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


and  fall,  and  to  help  plant  pathologists  who  are  interested  in 
the  transmission  of  cucumber  mosaic,  experiments  were  con- 
ducted to  determine  the  distance  beetles  fly.  Different  lots, 
a total  of  8,890  beetles,  were  colored  by  hand,  blue,  violet, 
green,  black,  and  red.  The  insects  were  then  released  in 
eight  different  places,  and  an  inspection  of  the  surrounding 
country  made  in  an  effort  to  pick  them  up.  Twenty-eight 
were  recovered  at  distances  of  from  300  yards  to  nearly  a mile 
from  the  point  of  liberation,  and  fourteen  were  recovered  a 
half-mile  or  more  from  the  starting  point.  Generally  it  was 
observed  that  the  insects,  once  they  rise  in  a moderate  breeze, 
fly  or  are  carried  considerable  distances,  taking  the  direction 
of  the  prevailing  wind. 

The  Producer  Needs  Economics 

Many  people  still  think  that  it  is  possible  to  secure  costs  of 
production  with  a reasonable  profit  on  what  they  have  to  sell. 
The  course  of  the  last  year  has  demonstrated  the  fallacy  of  this 
theory  when  applied  to  any  particular  product  at  any  given 
time.  In  the  long  run,  of  course,  no  man  can  continue  indefi- 
nitely in  business  or  in  the  production  of  any  commodity  unless 
he  can  make  a reasonable  profit  in  the  conduct  of  his  business. 
But  while  this  long  time  principle  obtains  in  the  disposal  of 
any  given  commodity  at  any  particular  time,  no  single  indi- 
vidual is  able  to  stem  the  trend  of  the  market  and  control  its 
operations.  It  made  no  difference  to  the  corn-belt  farmer 
this  last  year  what  his  costs  of  production  were  in  raising  a 
bushel  of  corn.  The  phenomenal  crop  with  its  surplus  bushels 
carried  the  price  to  such  low  levels  that  no  single  farmer  could 
expect  to  secure  his  cost  of  production,  let  alone  any  profit 
thereon. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  important  for  farmers  to  know  beyond 
all  question  what  are  the  actual  costs  of  production  of  their 
important  agricultural  products.  Generally  speaking,  such 
costs  are  not  determined  by  any  adequate  cost  accounting 
method,  and,  therefore,  the  farmers  know  only  in  a very  gen- 
eral way  what  these  figures  are.  It  is,  therefore,  incumbent 
upon  the  Experiment  Station  to  make  such  economic  studies 
as  will  give  a basis  for  answering  this  problem  and  thus  enable 
the  producers  to  introduce  more  business-like  methods  in  their 
affairs. 


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63 


Cost  of  Milk  Production 

During  the  year  1920  the  cost  of  milk  production  study  by 
S.  W.  Mendum  and  H.  Keller  (Agricultural  Economics)  was 
confined  to  units  of  feed  required,  units  of  feed  consumed, 
and  milk  produced.  Groups  from  five  counties,  Sheboygan, 
Columbia,  Milwaukee,  Ozaukee,  and  Marathon,  sent  in  re- 
ports from  which  the  results  were  obtained.  These  results 
were  compared  with  similar  information  obtained  from  120 


i Irate  of  production  per  cow  for  one  year  in  pounds 

” ••  ••  WHILE  ON  PASTURE  (YEARLY  BASIS)  IN  POUNDS 

OF  FEED  REQUIRED  FOR  MILK  PRODUCED 

////////i  ••  - MAINTENANCE 

VHM/m  TOTAL  UNITS  OF  FEED  REQUIRED 

HMHUNITS  OF  FEED  CONSUMED  - FURNISHED  BY  PASTURE 

iiM V FEEDS  OTHER  THAN  PASTURt 

I •".«B88a  TOTAL  UNITS  OF  FEED  CONSUMED 


FIG.  20. — A COMPARISON  OF  THE  RELATIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF  COWS 


cows  picked  at  random  from  the  Register  of  Production  and 
the  data  C.  H.  Eckles  gathered  while  studying  an  individual 
cow.  These  data  are  shown  in  graphic  form  in  Fig.  19. 

The  relationship  between  feed  required  and  milk  produced 
is  quite  evident,  for  the  units  of  feed  required  for  mainten- 
ance remain  fairly  constant  and  are  largely  determined  by 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


the  weight  of  the  cows.  Any  variation  shown  is  due  to  the 
different  breeds  of  cattle  that  are  being  used  in  the  different 
counties  of  the  state.  However,  a direct  relation  exists  be- 
tween units  of  feed  required  for  milk  and  the  amount  required 
for  producing  the  milk.  Every  pound  of  milk  produced  re- 
quires a certain  amount  of  energy  above  maintenance,  as  a 
prerequisite,  and  this  energy  is  furnished  by  the  feed.  Thus 
as  milk  production  increases,  the  absolute  number  of  units  of 
feed  required  for  each  pound  of  milk  does  not  change. 

Of  course  there  is  a limit  to  the  amount  of  milk  any  cow 
will  produce.  All  feed  consumed  will  not  necessarily  go 
toward  maintenance  and  milk.  When  a cow’s  capacity  pro- 
duction is  reached,  all  extra  feed  consumed  above  what  is 
needed  for  milk  and  maintenance  goes  into  fat  or  is  wasted. 
An  examination  of  the  chart  shows  that  practically  every 
group  overfed  the  cows.  But  in  each  case  the  amount  was 
small  and  would  not  materially  affect  the  feed  cost  in  the  pro- 
duction of  milk.  The  difference  in  feed  consumed  and  feed 
required  may  be  accounted  for  in  part  by  errors  in  reporting 
data.  More  care  and  judgment  exercised  in  feeding  might 
eliminate  the  rest,  but  in  all  cases  the  amount  of  overfeeding 
is  slight.  It  is  hard  to  determine  just  what  significance  pas- 
ture had.  In  most  cases  the  poorer  herds  received  the  greater 
amount  of  pasture  with  the  exception  of  the  Register  of  Pro- 
duction cows.  The  data  for  the  Register  of  Production  cows 
were  obtained  during  a year  when  pasture  was  very  good. 
The  other  information  was  obtained  during  1920  when  pas- 
tures were  affected  by  lack  of  water  for  several  months.  Also 
the  farmers  with  the  poorer  herds — the  Marathon  group  par- 
ticularly— had  a considerable  amount  of  pasture  at  their  dis- 
posal and  felt  obliged  to  use  it.  There  is  no  justification  for 
assuming  that  the  quality  of  the  herd  is  in  any  way  related 
to  the  pasture  fed. 

In  1921  the  study  has  been  confined  to  a single  group  of 
farmers,  all  members  of  the  Cedar  Grove  Cow  Testing  Asso- 
ciation, who  with  the  help  of  their  tester,  Herbert  Molter,  are 
supplying  the  data  for  the  study.  The  relationships  in  this 
study  deal  with  the  actual  amounts  of  feed  and  labor  utilized, 
their  market  values,  and  the  price  received  for  the  milk.  As 
the  study  is  unfinished  at  the  present,  little  can  be  said  about 
it,  but  the  intention  is  to  show  the  actual  difference  between 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


65 


price  paid  to  produce  the  milk  and  price  received,  and  also  to 
show  the  amount  ol  home  grown  feeds,  marketed  through  the 
milk,  and  the  amount  of  work  the  farmer  has  been  supplied 
with  through  the  medium  of  his  milk  business. 

Progress  Report  on~  Wool  Marketing  Investigation 

Abundant  reasons  why  wool  marketing  in  the  past  has  been 
unsatisfactory  and  why  a system  of  federated  local  and  dis- 
trict farmers’  wool  pools  should  better  past  conditions  by  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  a national  cooperative  wool 
sales  organization  are  tentative  conclusions  reached  in  an  ex- 
tensive study  of  wool  marketing  by  T.  Macklin  and  L.  P. 
Gabbard  (Agricultural  Economics). 

Two  methods  of  marketing  wool  are  in  use  at  the  present 
time  according  to  this  investigation.  The  less  efficient,  that 
of  the  private  ragman  who  buys  without  grading  and  at  a 
single  price  for  all  wool,  has  been  employed  in  handling  the 
product ; and  consequently  dissatisfactions  have  developed 
over  a period  of  years.  As  a result  experiments  were  organ- 
ized by  farmers  themselves  during  the  past  two  years  and  are 
being  continued  by  them  for  the  1921  wool  clip.  Naturally, 
a successful  outgrowth  from  these  experiments  would  upset 
the  marketing  machinery  which  previously  handled  the  wool 
clip.  That  there  should  be  opposition  to  any  change  is  to  be 
expected.  But  in  this  particular  case  there  is  no  justification 
for  opposition  to  farmers’  plans  to  comprehensively  market 
wool.  The  very  fact  that  there  is  such  wide-spread  opposition 
is  proof  of  the  resistance  which  inefficient  marketing  agencies 
and  methods  put  up  against  the  introduction  of  more  efficient 
methods  or  even  agencies. 

To  the  average  farmer,  wool  is  an  almost  insignificant  source 
of  income,  for,  being  a sideline  issue  on  most  farms,  the  farm- 
ers have  had  but  small  quantities  to  market.  They  have  had 
to  devote  their  attention  to  other  matters  so  much  that  it  has 
not  been  worth  the  while  to  improve  an  unsystematic  and  ex- 
pensive method  of  marketing  wool. 

But  at  last  the  farmers  have  found  a way  to  stimulate  im- 
provement by  their  own  efforts,  for  the  very  failure  of  private 
marketing  concerns  to  build  up  an  inexpensive,  comprehen- 
sive wool  marketing  system  has  obliged  the  farmers  to  try  to 
make  improvements  themselves.  This  they  could  attempt  to 
do  only  by  actually  doing  the  marketing  themselves,  but  in 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


order  to  establish  long  needed  improvements  which  many 
years  ago  were  introduced  into  the  more  important  marketing 
methods,  farmers  need  facts.  These  were  obtained,  and  in- 
dicated wherein  the  old  method  was  weak  and  expensive  and 
just  how  it  could  be  improved.  The  outstanding  facts  are: 

(1)  Wool  is  a sideline  production  on  most  farms  and  as  a 
rule  brings  in  a very  small  fraction  of  farm  income. 

(2)  Being  a sideline,  wool  does  not  constitute  a very  large 
volume  of  business  either  in  quantity  or  value  for  the  single 
community  or  even  county. 

WOOL  PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION-1920 


-WOOL  SURPLUS  DUE  TO  IRREGULARITY  OF  PRODUCTION 
AS  COMPARED  TO  CONSUMPTION  BY  THE  MILLS 
During-  June,  July  and  August  over  70%  of  the  wool  moves  onto  the 
market  but  during  the  same  period  only  25%  of  it  is  used. 


(3)  Because  of  the  small  volume  of  wool  to  be  marketed  at 
a shipping  point,  no  middleman  can  afiford  to  become  expert 
as  a local  wool  dealer.  Consequently  he  rarely  knows  wool 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


67 


grades,  has  unreliable  information  as  to  the  real  value  of  wool 
that  he  handles,  and  therefore  has  to  play  safe  by  paying  the 
minimum  prices  that  farmers  will  accept.  Besides,  his  costs 
were  excessive  on  account  of  the  small  volume  handled  and 
the  lack  of  facilities  for  proper  handling. 

(4)  These  evils,  inherent  in  a small  business,  constitute  the 
problem  which  farmers  can  eliminate  by  pooling  their  wool. 
But  just  as  the  private  middleman  had  to  finance  the  buying  of 
wool,  when  he  did  the  marketing,  so  also  the  farmer  must  now 
finance  the  marketing  of  wool  when  he  proposes  to  do  the 
marketing  himself,  either  by  waiting  for  his  money  until  the 
wool  is  sold  or  by  paying  interest  to  the  banks  and  borrowing 
the  money  until  the  wool  is  paid  for.  Will  the  farmer  do  one 
or  the  other  of  these  two  things*?  If  he  will  not,  he  thereby 
refuses  to  do  what  he  can  to  establish  the  most  efficient  kind 
of  a wool  marketing  method.  If  the  farmer  fails  to  create 
efficient  cooperative  wool  marketing,  private  agencies  may 
systematize  wool  marketing,  but  that  they  will  seems  unlikely 
from  the  present  competitive  conditions  or  past  experience. 

It  is,  therefore,  only  reasonable  to  suppose  that  substantial 
improvement  is  to  be  gained  by  actual  organization  of  the 
farmers  to  establish  marketing  enterprises  functioning  in  their 
behalf.  Information  thus  far  obtained  by  the  wool  investiga- 
tion demonstrates  the  need  for  increased  efficiency  in  moving 
wool  from  farms  to  woolen  mills. 

The  Agricultural  Neighborhood 

Upon  the  constructive  organization  of  community  life  de- 
pends much  of  the  development  in  rural  interests.  Various 
causes  determine  the  size  of  the  so-called  rural  neighborhood 
and  community;  and  in  a survey  conducted  by  J.  H.  Kolb 
(Agricultural  Economics)  various  comparisons  were  made, 
such  as  relationship  between  neighborhood  groups  and  of  these 
groups  to  schools,  to  church,  to  trade  areas,  to  nationality  set- 
tlements, and  to  farmers’  organizations.  Differing  tendencies 
are  responsible  for  the  origin  of  these  groups,  yet  changes  are 
continually  being  introduced  in  their  work  and  their  relation- 
ship among  themselves.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
groups  have  changed,  they  must  be  recognized  in  any  plan  of 
rural  organization  as  a means  of  utilizing  the  natural  differ- 
ences between  such  groups  of  people. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Since  the  primary  group  cannot  render  all  services  needed 
even  by  their  own  people,  such  as  education,  merchandising, 
religion,  communication,  social  life  and  organization,  it  is 
altogether  necessary  that  they  federate  together  and  join  with 
the  village  and  city  groups  to  form  larger  community  units. 
This  will  encourage  not  only  an  interchange  between  city  and 
country,  but  it  will  be  directly  advantageous  in  bringing  to- 
gether those  people  from  the  outside  to  become  a part  of  the 
larger,  more  active  community  life. 

Drainage  Districts  Studied 

To  ascertain  the  quality  of  drainage  which  has  resulted 
from  the  outlet  ditches  already  installed,  studies  have  been 
made  in  the  Portage  County,  4Clark  County,  Dancy,  Little  Yel- 
low, Cutler  and  Remington  Drainage  Districts  by  E.  R.  Jones 
and  O.  R.  Zeasman  (Agricultural  Engineering).  The  work  was 
done  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Drain- 
age Investigations. 

The  depth  and  condition  of  the  ditches,  the  height  of  the 
water  table  in  the  soil  between  the  ditches  and  the  general 
availability  of  these  lands  for  settlement  on  the  basis  of  drain- 
age, were  investigated  because  these  data  are  of  special  value 
to  the  prospective  owner  before  he  locates  on  lands  of  this 
character.  In  the  Portage  County  District  there  is  ample 
drainage  between  ditches  a mile  apart  where  peat  about  two 
feet  deep  lies  on  sand,  and  the  top  of  the  water  in  the  ditch  is 
4 feet  below  the  top  of  the  sand.  During  the  drouth  of  1921, 
timothy  and  alsike  suffered  somewhat  except  where  the  water 
was  held  up  during  June  and  July  by  a dam  in  a ditch  carrying 
considerable  water.  Excellent  crops  of  corn  and  sugar  beets 
resulted  without  subirrigation,  particularly  on  the  deeper  beds 
of  peat  that  are  more  drouth  resistant.  On  the  clay-bottom 
lands  of  the  Cutler  project  tile  will  be  needed  to  complete  the 
drainage. 

Settlers  are  making  a success  on  80-acre  farms  in  these 
districts  by  cultivating  for  the  first  year  or  two  only  such  por- 
tions as  have  good  drainage  during  the  early  spring,  and  pas- 
turing the  rest  until  they  are  able  to  drain  and  fertilize  prop- 
erly. Peat  lands  should  be  rolled  with  a heavy  roller  after 
seeding.  Timothy  and  alsike  require  less  drainage  than  corn 
and  are  profitable  crops  on  marsh  lands  (if  properly  handled) 


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69 


whose  drainage  is  only  fair,  thus  providing  a hay  crop  for  the 
marsh-farmer’s  stock  during  the  first  year  or  two  or  producing 
a cash  return  if  sold. 

Cement  Tile  on  Acid  Peat.  Acid  peat  soils  disintegrate 
ordinary  cement  tile,  and  it  has  not  been  proved  that  it  is 
safe  to  lay  even  the  best  cement  tile  in  acid  peat.  Although 
some  manufacturers  are  now  making  a cement  tile  which  is  on 
a par  with  shale  and  hard  burned  clay  tile  for  clay  sub-soils, 
as  yet  they  are  not  recommended  for  peat  or  sand,  and  the 
previous  investigations  on  this  subject  have  yet  to  be  dis- 
proved. 

Marsh  Plow  Development.  Further  research  work  has  been 
done  by  F.  W.  Duffee  (Agricultural  Engineering)  on  the  de- 
velopment of  an  improved  marsh  plow.  By  using  a larger 
coulter,  a heavier  frame,  a stronger  wheel,  and  a landslide 
longer  and  higher,  a plow  has  been  devised  which  works  ex- 
ceedingly well  on  marshes.  It  will  go  through  almost  any 
amount  of  trash  and  sod  without  clogging;  it  turns  the  furrow 
directly  upside  down  and  practically  completely  covers  the 
trash,  leaving  the  furrow  slices  lying  flat  in  condition  for 
working  the  seed  bed. 

Tractor  Motor  Lubrication  and  Kerosene  Fuel 

Efforts  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Duffee  using  one  brand  of 
lubricating  oil  to  determine  the  lasting  qualities  of  the  oil 
when  burning  kerosene.  This  oil  had  an  initial  viscosity  of  540 
seconds  at  100°  F.  as  measured,  and  at  the  end  of  15  hours 
running  the  viscosity  had  dropped  to  an  average  of  200  seconds 
for  two  tests,  and  the  oil  had  to  be  changed.  The  greatest 
drop  in  viscosity  occurred  during  the  first  two  and  one-half 
hours. 

It  was  found  important  to  warm  up  the  motor  well  before 
shifting  from  gasoline  to  kerosene.  By  burning  the  high  test 
gasoline  for  a half  hour  at  the  beginning,  no  material  advan- 
tage was  obtained  over  merely  warming  up  with  common  low 
test  gasoline.  Different  motors  will,  of  course,  obtain  differ- 
ent results ; in  some  cases  oil  will  last  twice  as  long,  the  prin- 
cipal reasons  being  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  crank  case  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  carburetor.  This  experiment,  however, 
demonstrates  the  importance  of  changing  the  oil  frequently 
when  burning  kerosene. 


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Brush  Plowing 

In  the  clearing  of  “wild”  or  unsubdued  land,  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  slash,  logs,  and  stumps  as  quickly  as  possible, 
so  the  unproductive  or  idle  acres  may  be  set  to  work  to  pro- 
duce crops  that  will  support  the  owner  and  his  family.  The 

settler  is  generally  short  of  funds  but  has  a surplus  of  his 
labor,  which  he  is  able  to  turn  into  capital  by  clearing  his  own 
land. 

In  some  portions  of  the  state  the  land  has  only  a few  stumps 
to  an  acre  and  the  second  growth  of  hardwood  trees  has  not 
become  larger  than  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter.  There 
it  has  been  found  possible,  according  to  investigations  by  John 
Swenehart  and  A.  C.  Fiedler  (Agricultural  Engineering),  to 
use  large  tractors  and  breaking  plows  to  turn  under  not  only 
the  smaller  brush  but  even  trees  up  to  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Naturally  a plan  to  use  a large  tractor  and  plowing  out- 
fit is  only  adaptable  where  a large  colonization  company  is 
operating  on  a tract  so  located  that  the  distance  from  one  farm 
to  another  is  not  too  great  or  where  a contractor  can  be  se- 
cured who  is  in  position  to  undertake  this  work.  The  coloniza- 
tion company  is  interested  in  the  rapid  reclamation  of  the  land, 
for  they  can  receive  their  money  only  when  the  settlers  are 
able  to  pay  them  out  of  what  the  redeemed  land  is  able  to 
produce. 

Studies  must  be  made  of  the  effect  of  such  a practice  on  the 
land  as  well  as  the  effect  of  such  a practice  on  the  new  settler. 
Will  it  tend  to  reduce  his  feeling  of  responsibility  for  imme- 
diate action?  Will  it  be  possible  to  instill  in  the  new  farmer 
a great  amount  of  energy  by  arranging  to  plow  as  soon  as 
he  has  brushed  the  land?  Observations  along  these  lines  are 
being  made  to  determine  in  general  whether  the  practice  will 
be  desirable. 

The  question  of  the  most  economical  power  unit  is  one 
which  cannot  yet  be  answered.  If  considerable  quantities  of 
large  brush  are  to  be  turned  under,  then,  undoubtedly,  a fairly 
large  tractor  will  have  to  be  used.  Because  of  the  many  dif- 
ferent conditions,  it  will  probably  be  impossible  to  specify  the 
type  of  tractor  which  will  be  most  desirable ; for,  while  a wheel 
type  tractor  works  well  under  one  set  of  conditions,  the  cater- 
pillar works  better  under  others.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 


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71 


land  can  be  brushed  before  plowing,  a number  of  horses  may 
be  used  to  give  the  same  drawbar  pull  of  a tractor.  Such 
charges  on  the  tractor  as  interest,  depreciation,  repairs,  as  well 
as  the  ordinarily  considered  maintenance  charges  must  be  con- 
sidered. With  horses,  charges  will  include  feed,  housing,  pos- 
sible injury  and  consequent  veterinary  service  as  well  as  other 
items  not  only  when  the  teams  are  working  but  when  they  are 
idle.  All  such  factors  will  need  to  be  considered  before  a 
definite  procedure  may  be  recommended. 

Frank  Conrath  of  Rusk  County,  situated  in  a district  where 
conditions  are  favorable  for  plowing  under  brush,  used  a 15-27 
tractor  and  a well-known  grub  breaker.  With  this  plow  he 
found  the  clearance  between  the  beam  and  land  so  small  that 
the  brush  would  accumulate  and  throw  the  plow  out  of  the 
ground  and  also  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  remove  this 
clogged  material.  To  eliminate  the  difficulty,  he  selected  a 
peculiar  shaped  tree  and  out  of  this  timber  made  a beam  which 
increased  the  clearance  from  about  16  inches  to  about  25 
inches.  Most  of  the  plows  used  have  been  20  to  24-inch  cut. 
Several  of  the  larger  plow  manufacturing  companies  have  also 
been  working  to  develop  a plow  with  larger  clearance,  and 
otherwise  particularly  adapted  to  plowing  under  large  brush, 
both  on  cut-over  land  and  marsh  land.  During  the  season  of 
1922,  careful  investigations  will  be  made  on  the  general  prac- 
ticability of  brush  plowing. 

Picric  Acid  for  Land  Clearing 

Over  twelve  million  pounds  of  picric  acid  left  over  from  the 
World  War  were  available  for  land  clearing  if  it  could  be  used. 
The  picric  acid  was  stored  containing  approximately  10  per 
cent  moisture,  which  made  it  impossible  to  explode  the  ma- 
terial. The  powdery  nature  of  the  dry  picric  acid  made  the 
dust  hazard  such  that  cartridging  on  a commercial  basis  was 
impossible.  Investigations  were  carried  on  to  find  out  how 
the  material  could  be  prepared  to  eliminate  the  dust  hazard 
and  at  the  same  time  retain  the  explosive  property.  Various 
percentages  of  water  and  oil  were  tried  with  the  result  that  a 
2 per  cent  moisture  content  was  found  to  allay  the  dust  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  resulting  material  could  be  detonated 
with  a number  8 cap. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Complete  investigations  were  then  made  by  Mr.  Swenehart 
as  to  the  effectiveness  of  picric  acid  in  the  field.  It  was  found 
to  be  much  stronger  for  stump  blasting  than  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary dynamites  used.  Cartridges  made  with  5.5  to  6 ounces 
were  approximately  equivalent  in  effective  strength  to  8-ounce 
cartridges  of  20  or  40  per  cent  dynamite.  The  action  of  picric 
acid  was  found  to  be  more  shattering  than  low-grade  dyna- 
mite, but  it  was  found  that  this  property  would  not  interfere 
with  its  effective  use.  The  picric  acid  is  not  affected  by  tem- 
perature, does  not  freeze,  and  therefore  requires  no  thawing ; 
it  is  more  resistant  to  moisture  than  dynamite  containing 
ammonium  nitrate  or  similar  hygroscopic  substances;  and  it 
does  not  deteriorate  in  storage  when  kept  dry.  The  cost  of 
all  items  of  preparation  and  distribution,  including  drying, 
cartridging,  cartage,  freight,  and  other  expenses,  is  about  40 
per  cent  of  the  prevailing  prices  for  equivalent  working 
strength  in  dynamites.  The  picric  acid  is  more  insensitive 
than  dynamite,  but  this  property  can  be  overcome  in  field 
work  by  using  a number  8 blasting  cap. 

Picric  acid  is  very  effective  in  boulder  blasting  where  its 
shattering  effect  is  desirable.  It  is  not  sensitive  enough  to  be 
used  for  propagated  ditch  blasting.  Picric  acid  is  practically 
non-poisonous,  and  no  ill  effects  are  felt  from  its  use  in  field 
operations.  Large  quantities  of  carbon  monoxide  gas  (CO) 
as  well  as  other  gases  are  given  off  from  the  explosion;  but, 
when  this  explosion  is  in  the  open  air,  the  gases  escape  readily. 
Moist  picric  acid  stains  the  skin  a lemon-yellowr  color,  which 
is  not  readily  removed  but  wears,  off  in  a few  days  without 
harmful  physiological  effects.  Picric  acid,  therefore,  can  be 
said  to  be  a non-freezing,  non-toxic  explosive  for  land  clear- 
ing work. 

As  the  cost  of  manufacturing  picric  acid  is  considerably 
more  than  the  cost  of  manufacture  of  commercial  dynamite ; 
therefore  the  use  of  picric  acid  will  be  limited  by  the  supply  of 
left-over  war  materials ; and,  when  these  are  consumed,  picric 
acid  will  probably  not  be  used  as  a land  clearing  explosive. 

Power  Requirements  for  Stump  Pulling 

Stump  removing  machinery  up  to  the  present  time  has  been 
designed  and  built  largely  by  guess  work,  no  available  data  on 
pounds  of  pull  required  being  known.  In  the  investigation 


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73 


by  Mr.  Swenehart,  a 5,000  pound  dynamometer  was  equipped 
with  a set  of  levers  to  permit  pulls  up  to  approximately  50,000 
pounds.  While  the  investigations  along  this  line  are  not  yet 
completed,  much  interesting  and  valuable  data  have  been  se- 
cured. 

The  pull  required  for  stumps,  of  course,  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  stump,  its  age,  kind  of  soil,  and  many  other  conditions. 
It  is  easy  to  pull  a stump  so  large  that  its  ultimate  disposal  is 
impossible  from  a practical  and  economical  standpoint.  With 
a team  as  the  most  common  and  economical  power  unit  on  a 
large  majority  of  upper  Wisconsin  farms,  the  size  of  pull  seems 
to  depend  on  the  capacity  to  move  the  pulled  stump.  There- 
fore, it  seems  preferable  to  use  sufficient  dynamite  to  make  the 
size  of  the  piece  pulled  small  enough  to  be  handled  by  power 
equivalent  to  that  of  a team  and  team  equipment.  It  was 
found  that  the  capacity  of  a team  was  about  equivalent  to  the 
capacity  of  a three-quarter-inch  cable  on  ordinary  capstan  or 
drum  type  of  stump  pullers.  Pulls  up  to  perhaps  20,000  pounds 
can  be  safely  made  with  three-quarter-inch  cable,  but  the  cable 
is  broken  with  pulls  of  23,000  to  25,000  pounds.  It  was  found 
also  that  under  most  conditions  the  pieces  pulled  by  a 20,000 
pound  pull  were  as  large  as  could  be  economically  handled  and 
piled. 

The  cable  used  was  standard  plow  steel  cable,  6 strands  of 
19  wires  around  a hemp  center.  This  cable  is  listed  with  a 
breaking  strength  of  approximately  23  tons  by  manufacturers. 
It  is  as  large  a cable  as  seems  desirable  to  use  in  a stump  pull- 
ing operation  under  Wisconsin  conditions.  Larger  cables  are 
less  flexible  and  less  easily  handled.  Pieces  of  stump  which 
require  a pull  of  10,000  to  18,000  pounds  to  remove,  require 
about  10  or  15  per  cent  of  this  pull  to  skid  them  for  piling.  In 
other  words,  a pull  of  15,000  pounds  to  remove  a stump  could 
be  changed  to  a pull  of  perhaps  1,200  to  1,800  pounds  with 
extra  speed  for  skidding. 

A tabulation  of  100  pulls  under  different  soil  conditions  indi- 
cates that  most  pulls  ranged  from  10,300  pounds  to  20,000 
pounds.  Above  20,000  pounds  will  pull  pieces  of  stump  larger 
than  a team  can  ordinarily  handle.  Cables  break  after  a few 
of  these  high  pulls.  The  stumps  were  white  pine  having  been 
cut  from  20  to  40  years.  The  different  soils  were  sand,  silt 
loams,  and  clay.  Absolutely  no  relation  could  be  established 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


between  pulls  and  size  of  stump.  This  information  should  be 
particlarly  valuable  in  designing  land  clearing  tools,  machinery 
and  equipment.  It  should  point  the  way  for  more  practical 
development  in  stump  handling  outfits. 

Which  Plants  Feed  Best  on  Phosphate  and  Potassium 

Crops  grown  on  different  soils  may  thrive  or  not  according 
to  their  ability  to  feed  on  minerals.  Mr.  E.  Truog  (Soils) 
has  continued  his  work  this  year,  finding  that  some  plants  feed 
much  more  strongly  than  others  on  rock  phosphate  and  the 
insoluble  minerals  of  potassium.  Some  plants  like  buck- 
wheat feed  strongly  on  rock  phosphate  but  poorly  on  the  in- 
soluble minerals  of  potassium,  while  other  plants  like  sweet 
clover  feed  strongly  on  both. 

In  order  to  explain  this,  pot  experiments  were  conducted  in 
the  greenhouse.  In  some  of  these  experiments  the  phosphorus 
was  supplied  as  rock  phosphate  and  the  potassium  as  feld- 
spar; in  others  the  phosphorus  and  potassium  were  supplied 
in  dilute  solutions.  It  was  found  that  the  plants  with  very 
acid  sap  are  able  to  get  the  phosphorus  from  dilute  solutions 
much  better  than  those  with  a less  acid  or  nearly  neutral  sap, 
while  in  the  case  of  potassium  the  reverse  was  true.  Thus, 
plants  with  a slightly  acid  or  nearly  neutral  sap  were  able  to 
get  their  potassium  from  much  more  dilute  solutions  than 
those  with  a strongly  acid  sap.  When  the  plant  uses  the 
potassium  for  building  compounds  in  the  leaves,  stems,  or 
stalks,  it  must  be  taken  out  of  solution  from  the  plant  sap. 
It  is  much  easier  to  remove  a basic  element  like  potassium 
from  a slightly  acid  solution  than  from  a strongly  acid  one, 
while  in  the  case  of  an  acid  element  like  phosphorus,  it  is 
easier  to  remove  it  from  a strongly  acid  solution  than  from  a 
less  acid  one.  Feldspar  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  the  soil 
solution ; and  only  those  plants  such  as  sweet  clover  that  are 
able  to  get  their  potassium  from  very  dilute  solutions,  i.  e., 
with  a slightly  acid  sap,  are  able  to  secure  an  adequate  supply 
from  such  a source. 

Rock  phosphate  has  been  applied  in  many  cases,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  to  feed  on  this  material  the  plant  must  have 
either  a strongly  acid  sap  or  a high  calcium  content ; for  if 
the  calcium  content  of  the  plant  is  high,  the  solubility  of  the 
rock  phosphate  near  the  plant  roots  is  accordingly  high,  and 


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75 


the  material  becomes  available.  If  the  sap  is  very  acid,  it  is 
possible  for  the  plant  to  utilize  the  phosphorus  from  a very 
dilute  solution.  Accordingly,  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  feed 
on  the  various  mineral  ingredients  may  influence  the  avail- 
ability of  fertilizers  for  different  crops. 

Obtaining  the  True  Soil  Solution 

Every  soil  contains  a certain  amount  of  water,  some  in 
larger  quantities  than  others.  However,  while  some  may  be 
relatively  soaked,  much  of  the  water  clings  to  the  fine  particles 
of  soil  and  is  called  the  soil  solution.  Inasmuch  as  the  soil 
solution  is  taken  up  by  plants  and  serves  not  only  as  a source 
of  water  but  also  as  the  carrier  of  plant  food,  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  know  the  concentration  and  composition  of  the  soil 
solution,  for  upon  it  actually  depends  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
As  the  plants  absorb  their  food  from  this,  there  may  be  min- 
erals present  in  the  soil  which  the  plant  cannot  use,  and  yet 
at  the  same  time  a laboratory  analysis  might  show  a high 
content  of  the  necessary  element.  To  overcome  this  difficulty, 
F.  W.  Parker  (Soils)*  has  studied  the  displacement  method 
of  obtaining  the  soil  solution  and  has  adapted  the  method  used 
to  a limited  extent  by  foreign  investigators. 

The  method  consists  of  packing  the  soil  at  the  most  favor- 
able moisture  content  in  glass  percolators  and  then  pouring 
ethyl  alcohol  on  top  of  the  column.  The  layer  of  alcohol  is 
maintained  on  the  soil  until  displacement  is  completed.  As 
the  alcohol  sinks  into  the  soil,  it  displaces  or  pushes  out  the 
soil  solution,  which  moves  downward  ahead  of  the  alcohol  and 
finally  drops  from  the  bottom  of  the  glass  cylinder.  Thus 
there  is  obtained  a perfectly  clear  solution,  free  of  alcohol, 
which  seems  to  be  the  true  soil  solution.  It  has  further  been 
found  that,  whether  taken  from  the  first  part  which  is  dis- 
placed, from  the  middle  portion,  or  from  the  last  part,  the  con- 
centration of  the  solution  depends  only  upon  the  moisture 
content  of  the  soil,  that  is,  the  less  the  moisture  content  of  the 
soil,  the  greater  the  concentration  of  the  soil  solution.  This 
experiment  gives  the  same  result  for  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  as  that  obtained  by  the  usual  water  extraction  method. 
Furthermore,  about  50  per  cent  of  the  soil  solution  can  be  dis- 

• Fellowship  given  by  Soil  Improvement  Association. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


placed  in  from  24  to  36  hours  before  the  alcohol  passes  through 
a suitable  soil  sample.  This  method  has  the  advantage  that 
no  special  apparatus  is  needed;  the  operation  is  simple,  and 
large  amounts  of  solution  may  be  obtained,  while  other  meth- 
ods generally  require  complicated  apparatus,  or  else  give  a 
very  small  proportion  of  the  soil  solution.  By  this  process, 
it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  a much  better  understanding  of 
soil  acidity  and  fertilizer  requirements  of  soil,  thus  paving  the 
way  for  a more  accurate  determination  of  soil  fertility  and 
acidity  in  the  laboratory  than  has  hitherto  been  possible  by 
the  old  water  extraction  method. 

Soils  Survey  Maps  775  Square  Miles 

Not  only  has  the  soil  survey  been  of  great  value  in  the  study 
of  erosion,  drainage,  and  the  adaptation  of  land  to  machinery 
used  in  the  production  of  various  crops,  but  it  is  locating  the 
limestone  and  is  supplying  new  settlers  with  accurate  informa- 
tion on  Wisconsin  soils.  Twenty-one  counties  have  thus  far 
been  completely  surveyed,  every  ten-acre  area  and  sometimes 
smaller  areas  being  inspected  and  recorded.  In  the  recon- 
naissance survey  applied  to  the  upper  counties  and  made  pri- 
marily to  assist  in  the  settlement,  every  forty  acres  are  con- 
sidered. During  the  field  season  of  1921,  the  cooperative  Soil 
Survey  has  been  continued,  the  federal  government  furnishing 
three  men  and  the  state  four  most  of  the  season.  Mr.  Geib, 
supervising  the  field  work,  is  jointly  employed  by  the  state 
and  federal  governments. 

In  addition  to  mapping  the  soil  types  as  has  been  done  in 
the  past,  the  topography  is  now  being  indicated  under  four 
classes:  First,  level  to  gently  undulating;  second,  undulating 

to  gently  rolling;  third,  rolling  to  hilly;  and  fourth,  very  hilly 
and  broken,  or  broken.  Greater  attention  is  also  being  di- 
rected toward  locating  limestone  for  agricultural  uses,  as  the 
grinding  of  limestone  by  individuals  and  groups  of  farmers  is 
becoming  more  popular.  One  small  grinder  in  Green  County 
has  produced  about  8,000  tons  of  ground  limestone  during  the 
past  four  years.  The  calcium  and  magnesium  content  of  sam- 
ples from  different  soil  types  has  been  determined  in  a num- 
ber of  cases.  These  show  a wide  range  in  total  calcium  con- 
tent but  also  indicate  that  the  need  for  additional  lime  is  prob- 
ably as  largely  determined  by  the  total  calcium  content  of  the 


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77 


soil  as  by  the  amount  of  acidity.  Furthermore,  no  relation 
exists  between  the  total  lime  content  and  the  degree  of  acidity, 
making  it  necessary  to  determine  not  only  the  acidity  of  the 
soil  but  the  total  calcium  content  before  the  lime  needs  can  be 
definitely  determined. 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Sandy  Soils 

An  inventory  of  Wisconsin  soils  shows  that  approximately 
six  million  acres,  one-fifth  of  the  total  area,  are  recognized  as 
sandy  soils.  As  population  increases  and  development  ad- 
vances, these  soils  will  be  used  more  and  more  for  the  produc- 
tion of  food.  Very  often  a farmer  finds  the  water  supply  the 
most  important  factor  influencing  the  productivity  of  these 
soils.  Accordingly,  since  1917  H.  W.  Stewart  (Soils)  has  been 
gathering  information  regarding  the  utilization  of  moisture  by 
growing  crops. 

Three  principal  types  of  sandy  soils  were  examined, — 
medium  sand,  fine  sand,  and  sandy  loam.  Soil  samples  were 
placed  in  galvanized  iron  cylinders  18  inches  in  diameter  and 
varying  in  depth  from  27  to  78  inches.  These  cylinders  were 
provided  with  drainage  and  sunk  to  a depth  which  brought 
the  tops  flush  with  the  ground  surface.  Fertilizers  were  added 
to  supply  the  needs  of  the  crops  grown  in  order  that  the  mois- 
ture content  might  be  the  only  limiting  factor.  Five  crops  of 
corn,  oats,  clover,  or  soybeans  have  been  taken  from  the  soil. 

In  the  spring  of  1921  plots  were  established  on  the  three 
classes  of  soil  on  farms  near  Hancock,  Wisconsin,  in  order  to 
continue  the  work  under  field  conditions.  The  crops  grown 
were  also  fertilized  to  supply  the  necessary  plant  food,  and 
from  this  work  the  comparison  of  the  different  types  of  sandy 
soils  was  made.  Average  yields  in  the  soil  cylinders  showed 
that  the  sandy  loam  gave  an  increase  over  the  sands  (medium 
and  fine)  of  15.96  bushels  of  oats,  0.7  of  a ton  of  oat  straw 
(four-year  average),  11.82  bushels  of  corn  (1920  crop)  and 
0.31  of  a ton  of  stover  (four-year  average),  3.83  bushels  for  a 
two-year  average  of’  soybeans,  and  9.1  of  a ton  of  straw;  but 
in  the  case  of  clover  a difference  of  only  0.01  of  a ton  was 
shown.  These  differences  in  yields  indicate:  (1)  That  the 
sandy  loam  utilized  its  moisture  more  efficiently  than  the 
sands,  especially  in  the  production  of  corn,  oats,  and  oat  straw ; 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


(2)  that  sands  are  not  soils  adapted  to  the  production  of  oats ; 

(3)  that  the  utilization  of  the  moisture  in  the  sandy  loam  was 
not  much  better  than  that  of  the  sands  in  the  production  of 
soybeans,  clover,  and  corn  stover ; (4)  and  that  sands  will 
supply  moisture  nearly  as  well  to  soybeans  as  the  sand  loam, 
and  soybeans  are  therefore  especially  well  adapted  to  this 
lighter  soil  type. 

During  1920  and  1921  the  height  of  the  growing  corn  was 
measured  from  time  to  time  at  Madison  and  at  Hancock  to 
determine  whether  or  not  the  effect  of  soil  texture,  in  its  rela- 
tion to  water  supply,  influenced  the  height  of  the  plants.  In 
every  case  plants  were  higher  on  the  sandy  loam  than  on  the 
medium  and  fine  sand  with  an  average  difference  over  the  two- 
year  period  of  8.6  inches  in  favor  of  the  sandy  loam.  Over 
five  hundred  moisture  determinations  were  made  during  the 
summer  of  1921  of  soils  on  the  Hancock  plots,  which  showed : 

(1)  That  the  sandy  loam  contained  an  average  moisture  con- 
tent to  a depth  of  40  inches,  twice  that  contained  in  the  sands ; 

(2)  that  after  June  27  the  average  moisture  content  to  the 
same  depth  was  slightly  lower  in  the  fine  sand  than  in  the 
medium  sand.  Much  discussion  has  recently  been  centered 
about  the  depth  to  which  rainfall  will  penetrate  in  the  different 
types  of  soil.  On  July  27  a rainfall  of  0.5  inch  was  measured 
as  follows : 


Rain  Penetrates  Farthest  in  Medium  Sand  (Inches) 


Corn 

Oat  Stubble 

Medium  Sand  

15.0 

9.0 

Fine  Sand  

5.5 

5.5 

Sandy  Loam  

4.0 

3.5 

This  table  shows  that  the  coarser  texture  soils  allow  the 
rain  to  penetrate  deeper  than  do  the  finer  textured  types, 
thereby  removing  it  from  the  crops.  This  is  further  borne  out 
by  the  fact  that  the  crops  such  as  clover,  soybeans,  and  corn 
are  relatively  much  better  on  the  coarser  types  of  sandy  soil 
than  are  those  such  as  oats  with  root  system  growing  near  the 
surface.  Continued  observations  on  this  project  will  be  needed 
before  final  conclusions  should  be  drawn. 

Green' Manure  at  Spooner 

Green  manuring  experiments  by  A.  R.  Whitson  and  F.  L. 
Musbach  (Soils)  were  begun  in  1914  at  this  branch  station 


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79 


and  no  stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  have  been  used 
since  the  beginning  of  the  trial.  In  the  rotation  corn  is  fol- 
lowed by  oats,  clover,  and  potatoes.  When  corn  is  grown  the 
rows  are  planted  2%  feet  apart  alternating  with  lupines,  soy- 
beans. or  serradella  in  the  different  plots,  the  green  crop  being 


FIG.  22.— CLOVER  ON  LIGHT  SOILS  NEEDS  MANURE 

Bundles  taken  from  equal  area.  (1)  4.5  tons  manure  on  corn  ami 
equal  amount  on  rye;  (2)  no  manure  used. 

plowed  under  after  the  corn  is  removed.  When  potatoes  are 
planted,  an  early  variety  such  as  Triumph  is  used,  and,  after 
digging  the  potatoes,  the  fields  are  planted  to  sand  vetch, 
clover,  or  rye.  1'hese  crops  are  allowed  to  make  the  maximum 
growth  in  the  spring  before  the  ground  is  plowed  for  the  corn 
crop,  which  follows  potatoes.  On  the  check  plots  a higher 
yield  of  stover  has  been  obtained  because  the  rows  are  planted 
2i/2  feet  apart  and  are  not  alternated  with  any  green  manure 
crop  but  in  all  other  cases  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen 
have  increased  the  yield  of  oats  nearly  10  bushels  an  acre  (8- 
year  average),  over  the  check  plots  at  26  bushels;  potatoes  8 
bushels  (8-year  average),  over  the  check  plots  of  100  bushels; 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


lU'sklues.  Lime  and  Rock  Phosphate.  Yield  74.4  bushels,  16.(5  per  eet 


nubbins 


Manure  and  Limestone.  Yield  78.2  bushels. 


Manure  and  Phosphate  only.  Yield  68.2  bushels.  16,0  per  cent  nubbins 


FIG.  23.— MANURE,  LIME,  AND  ROCK  PHOSPHATE  GROW  BETTER 
CORN  AT  MARSHFIELD 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


81 


and  clover  a quarter  ton  (7-year  average),  or  2 tons  an  acre  on 
the  green-manure  plots.  This  method  of  rotation  and  soiling 
offers  an  opportunity  to  maintain  soil  fertility  when  the  barn- 
yard manure  is  not  plentiful  and  when  humus  is  needed. 

Fertilizer  Work  on  Light  Soil  at  Spooner 

Fertilizer  work  was  further  conducted  by  Mr.  Musbach  and 
Mr.  Whitson  on  light  sand  soils  at  Spooner  Station  in  a rota- 
tion of  corn,  oats,  and  clover.  The  fertilizers  were  applied 
with  the  corn  crop,  ground  limestone  being  broadcasted  with 
the  oats  and  clover  seeding.  Here  the  use  of  fertilizers  sup- 
plementing stable  manure  did  not  raise  the  yield  to  any  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  case  of  corn  or  in  the  other  crops 
grown  in  the  rotation.  Manure  alone  has  apparently  been 
sufficient  to  supply  the  plant  food  necessary  to  produce  the 
crops  grown.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  six  years  prior 
to  the  time  the  experiment  was  started  a three-year  rotation 
was  practiced  on  the  fields,  and  during  that  time  one-third  of 
the  entire  field  each  year  was  devoted  to  legume  crops,  such 
as  soybeans,  clover,  and  sand  vetch,  which  were  plowed  under. 
Thus,  only  two  out  of  three  crops  were  removed  from  the 
field,  and  the  manure  applied  has  been  particularly  rich  in 
plant  food  requirements. 

Potato  Work.  Plots  for  fertilization  of  potatoes  using 
stable  manure  supplemented  by  soluble  phosphates  and  pot- 
ash, and  crop  residues  with  complete  fertilizers  were  begun 
in  1914.  The  rotation  is  oats  followed  by  clover  and  then  by 
potatoes,  and  the  fertilizers  are  all  applied  to  the  potato  crop. 

Here  it  appears  that  the  highest  yields  were  obtained  on 
the  three  plots  receiving  mineral  fertilizers  in  addition  to 
stable  manure,  although  the  difference  was  not  great.  The 
results  further  show  that  since  clover  has  always  occupied  the 
land  one  year  out  of  every  three,  together  with  the  fact  that 
the  manure  used  comes  from  a herd  receiving  considerable 
concentrates  in  their  rations,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  supply 
fertilizing  constituents  from  other  sources.  Such  a rotation 
is  sufficient  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Plots  which  received  no  stable  manure  but  merely  clover 
clippings  plus  a high  grade  complete  fertilizer  yielded  220 


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bushels  of  potatoes  per  acre ; those  with  manure  233  bushels 
an  acre,  while  with  manure  and  375  pounds  of  acid  phosphate, 
244  bushels  an  acre  were  obtained. 

It  does  not  appear  that  on  this  particular  field  the  avail- 
able plant  food  has  been  the  limiting  factor  in  crop  production. 
The  field  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  farm,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  effects  of  the  rotation  together  with  the  quality  of  manure 
used  had  made  it  possible  to  maintain  the  crop  yields  at  a 
rather  high  level. 

Rotations  for  Superior  Sandy  Loam 


Two  five-year  rotations  have  been  laid  out,  one  consisting  of 
half  corn  and  half  potatoes,  fall  rye,  oats,  clover,  and  mixed  hay, 
the  other  of  half  rutabagas  and  half  potatoes,  spring  wheat,  oats, 
clover  and  mixed  hay.  Twelve  tons  of  manure  were  applied  to 
the  cultivated  crops,  and  half  of  the  plots  in  each  case  received 
250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  in  addition  to  the  manure  while 
the  small  grain  crop  following,  wheat  in  one  case — rye  in  the 
other,  also  received  an  application  of  250  pounds  of  soluble  phos- 
phate. 

The  rotations  were  begun  in  1919  but  show,  in  only  two  years’ 
results,  the  advantage  of  supplementing  manure  with  acid  phos- 
phate. With  the  corn  and  potatoes,  fall  rye,  oats,  clover,  and 
mixed  hay  rotation,  the  results  were  as  follows : 

Manure  and 

Crops  Manure  Acid  Phosphate 

Oats  32.6  bu 39.0  bu. 

Rye 28.7  bu 31.1  bu. 

Corn 48.6  bu 61.2  bu. 

Potatoes  190.7  bu 186.9  bu. 

With  rutabagas  and  potatoes,  spring  wheat,  oats,  clover  and 
mixed  hay,  the  rotation  yielded : 

Manure  and 

Crops  Manure  Acid  Phosphate 

Oats  31.06  bu 40.54  bu. 

Wheat  4.99  bu 6.69  bu. 

Potatoes  210.37  bu 205.38  bu. 

Rutabagas  10.43  tons 17.33  tons 

Ashland  Red  Clay  Needs  Special  Attention 

Last  year  was  one  of  the  best  seasons  for  small  grains  on 
the  red  clay  soils  as  represented  by  the  Ashland  Station  for  both 
temperature  and  rainfall  were  ideal  for  a big  crop.  The  rota- 
tion used  on  the  test  plots  is  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  clover.  On 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


83 


the  26  fertilizer  plots  conducted  by  Mr.  Musbach  even  the  oats 
yielded  70  bushels  an  acre.  An  addition  of  ten  tons  of  manure 
and  250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  increased  the  yield  to  88 
bushels  an  acre,  while  the  application  of  ten  tons  of  manure  with 
500  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  averaged  79  bushels.  By  adding 
10  tons  of  manure  alone,  the  yield  was  increased  to  78  bushels 
an  acre.  While  this  experiment  must  be  continued  further,  the 
results  show  improvement  which  may  be  obtained  by  using  fer- 
tilizer. 

Treatment  of  Colby  Silt  Loam  at  the  Marshfield  Station 

Two  questions  have  been  asked  many  times:  (1)  Which  is 
better,  rock  phosphate  or  acid  phosphate?  (2)  Shall  we  use 
ground  limestone  or  gypsum?  Mr.  Musbach  and  Mr.  Whit- 
son have  now'  finished  a four-year  series  of  experiments 
using  a rotation  of  clover,  corn,  barley  and  oats.  Last  year 
when  winter  killing  damaged  the  clover,  soybeans  were  substi- 
tuted. This  rotation  has  had  a very  favorable  effect,  for  even 
on  the  untreated  plots  the  yield  has  been  good — corn  45  bushels, 
oats  57  bushels,  and  clover  hay  1^4  tons  an  acre.  Although  bar- 
ley has  been  a relatively  low  yielder  under  all  conditions,  it  proved 
much  better  than  wheat,  which  has  failed  on  this  type  of  soil. 

The  advantage  of  phosphate  has  been  shown,  for  while  prac- 
tically 33  per  cent  of  the  corn  on  the  untreated  plots  consisted 
of  nubbins,  less  than  one-half  that  amount  of  nubbins  was 
found  in  the  corn  grown  with  phosphate  treatment.  Rock 
phosphate,  generally,  is  giving  results  equal  to  acid  phos- 
phate, although  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  heavier 
application  of  the  rock  phosphate  means  higher  freight  and 
distribution  charges,  and  that  at  the  present  time  the  descend- 
ing price  of  acid  phosphate  and  the  new  treble  super-phos- 
phate are  particularly  advantageous. 

Lime  has  generally  shown  itself  beneficial  although  it  must 
be  recognized  that  lime  is  not  always  necessary  on  even  the 
very  acid  Colby  soil  for  clover  or  other  crops  until  the  land  has 
been  under  cultivation  for  a considerable  number  of  years.  On 
the  other  hand,  careful  work  continued  over  a long  number  of 
years  has  shown  that  gypsum  or  phosphate  is  of  no  benefit,  while 
liming  has  shown  a profitable  increase  with  corn  of  7.4  bushels, 
oats  6.1  bushels,  and  clover  hay  of  492  pounds.  The  1921 


84 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


trials  showed  not  only  a higher  yield  but  a better  quality  of 
corn.  An  increase  in  yield  was  secured  of  better  than  17  bushels 
in  favor  of  the  lime  plot,  while  of  the  limed  corn  10.6  per  cent 
was  found  to  be  nubbins,  and  on  the  unlimed  land  the  average 
amount  of  nubbins  was  19  per  cent.  Generally,  the  use  of  ^stable 
manure  and  limestone  has  shown  good  increase  in  the  crops 
for  four  and  five-year  averages.  Manure,  supplemented  by 
either  rock  phosphate  or  acid  phosphate  with  limestone,  has 
served  to  push  the  yield  of  oats  2 bushels,  of  corn  3.9  bushels, 
and  of  clover  175  pounds  an  acre  ahead  of  the  untreated  crop. 
Potash,  on  the  contrary,  shows  no  increases  when  used  to  sup- 
plement manure  and  phosphates. 

Benefit  of  Under-Drainage  on  Colby  Silt  Loams 

The  effects  of  tile  on  ground  that  has  not  ample  surface  drain- 
age has  been  studied  by  the  use  of  test  plots.  Mr.  Whitson  and 
Mr.  Musbach  have  found  that  the  tile  on  this  type  of  soil  should 
be  placed  not  farther  than  3 rods  apart.  In  case  of  cultivated 
crops  the  increase  when  closer  to  the  tile  has  been  most  marked. 
Corn  4 rods  from  the  tile  yielded  59  bushels  an  acre  for  a three- 
year  average;  while  corn  1 rod  from  the  tile  yielded  64  bushels 
an  acre.  When  2 and  3 rods  from  the  tile  the  corn  yield  was 
62.6  bushels  an  acre.  While  potatoes  4 rods  from  the  tile  yielded 
154  bushels,  1 rod  from  the  tile  they  yielded  192  bushels,  with 
172  bushels  and  162  bushels  the  yields  at  2 and  3 rods  distances. 
Alfalfa  showed  an  advantage  of  415  pounds  an  acre  of  the  1- 
rod-from-the-tile  over  the  4-rods-from-the-tile  crop,  while  bar- 
ley showed  a difference  of  only  2 bushels  an  acre  for  that  close 
to  the  tile  over  that  4 rods  from  it. 

Does  Deep  Tillage  Pay? 

Whether  to  use  deep  tilling  machines  or  deep  plowing  has 
caused  much  discussion  in  previous  years.  These  results  have 
been  obtained  by  Mr.  Musbach  at  the  Marshfield  Station  as  a 
result  of  from  five  to  nine  years’  test: 

1.  Deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  have  not  been  found  profit- 

able. 

2.  Corn  on  a five-year  average  has  given  the  best  yields  on 

spring  plowed  land  followed  by  ordinary  fall  plowing  to 
a depth  of  6 to  7 inches. 


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3.  Deep  tilling  has  given  the  lowest  yields. 

4.  With  oats,  nine-year  tests  have  shown  a trifle  higher  yield 

on  spring  plowed  than  on  ordinary  fall  plowed  land; 
likewise  deep  tilling  gave  the  lowest  yield.  In  clover  and 
timothy  the  results  are  variable. 

Colby  silt  loam  is  a rather  heavy  soil,  typical  of  the  Marsh- 
field area  and  is  not  like  the  Miami  silt  loam  in  the  southern 
part  of  Wisconsin.  At  Ashland,  subsoiling  has  increased  the 
yield  for  the  barley  crop  3 bushels  an  acre  over  fall  plowed 
land  or  spring  plowed  land,  although  with  corn,  clover,  and  clover 
and  timothy  the  yield  was  not  materially  increased.  Other  deep 
tillage  treatments,  however,  did  not  increase  the  yield  and  are 
not  recommended,  while  the  extra  cost  of  subsoiling  does  not 
pay  for  itself.  Fall  plowing  to  a depth  of  6 inches  has  shown 
a better  yield  in  corn  while  with  hay  crops  of  clover  and  timothy 
spring  plowing  seems  to  have  advantage  over  other  methods. 

CoDDINGTON  BRANCH  STATION  WORKS  WlTH  MARSH  SOIL 

The  Coddington  Experimental  Plots  are  located  on  the 
Buena  Vista  marsh,  which  lies  in  Portage  and  Waushara  Coun- 
ties. The  ground  has  been  under  plow  for  three  seasons.  Other 
marshes  with  similar  drainage,  subsoil,  and  climatic  conditions 
are  found  in  Adams,  Juneau,  Wood,  Monroe  and  Jackson 
Counties.  These  marshes  for  the  most  part  consist  of  a rather 
raw  peat  with  occasional  flats  of  black  sand.  Where  the  soil 
has  been  cultivated  for  five  to  ten  years,  the  peat  verges  toward 
muck.  The  depth  of  peat  or  muck  varies  from  nothing  on  the 
sand  ridges  to  six  feet  in  other  parts. 

Two  problems  face  the  farmers  on  this  type  of  soil  after  drain- 
age ditches  have  been  established — danger  from  frost  and  a 
shortage  of  mineral  elements  in  the  soil.  Accordingly  the  ex- 
periments, conducted  by  Mr.  Whitson  and  A.  R.  Albert  (Soils) 
at  the  Coddington  Station,  are  ascertaining  what  crops  are 
sufficiently  frost  resistant  or  short  seasoned  to  insure  some 
measure  of  harvest.  Data  are  also  being  gathered  on  the  various 
manurial  treatments  in  order  to  best  employ  commercial  and 
other  manures.  In  1921  crops  grown  at  the  station  were  corn, 
oats,  rye,  sugar  beets,  table  beets,  potatoes,  sunflowers,  flax, 
soybeans,  alfalfa,  sweet  clover  and  a timothy  and  alsike  mix- 
ture. Corn,  grain  and  hay  suffered  severely  from  frosts  on 


86  Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 

June  4 and  5,  but  the  corn  made  a good  recovery  where  fer- 
tilized or  manured,  and  as  there  were  no  fall  frosts  until  Sep- 
tember 11,  it  matured  well.  Some  hay  and  grain  recovered, 
while  others  grew  up  to  weeds. 

The  unfertilized  plots  of  corn  yielded  27  bushels  an  acre, 
but  with  150  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  400  pounds  of 
acid-phosphate  they  yielded  46  bushels;  with  150  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash  and  800  pounds  rock  phosphate,  48  bushels 
were  produced;  with  150  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  400 
pounds  acid  phosphate,  and  lime  the  yield  was  44  bushels ; while 
with  8 tons  of  manure  the  corn  yield  was  51  bushels,  and  with 
8 tons  of  manure  supplemented  by  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
the  yield  was  54  bushels  an  acre. 

Oats  did  not  recover  from  the  June  frost,  and  accordingly  the 
crop  was  cut  for  hay,  yielding  about  one-half  ton  an  acre.  Un- 
fertilized rye  yielded  4.75  bushels  an  acre.  Potatoes  planted 
on  unfertilized  ground  on  one  of  the  sand  flats  were  practically 
a failure  due  to  the  exceedingly  hot  summer.  Flax  matured  a 
crop  of  seed,  but  drouth  prevented  the  development  of  fiber 
of  any  value,  although  the  seed  yield  on  variously  treated  plots 
was  438  pounds  an  acre  and  the  straw  4,428  pounds.  Soybeans 
on  the  marsh  were  cut  for  hay,  and  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover 
sown  May  31  and  June  8,  respectively,  with  no  lime  or  manurial 
treatment  produced  an  excellent  stand  but  showed  no  nodules 
on  the  roots.  The  timothy  and  alsike  mixture  was  frosted  so 
badly  that  weeds  grew  thick  and  heavy. 

The  sugar  beets  planted  were  not  fertilized,  and  the  crop  was 
harvested  for  stock  feed ; but  table  beets  on  fertilized  plots  proved 
very  promising.  In  the  unfertilized  plots  the  table  beets  yielded 
4,750  pounds  an  acre,  but  with  300  pounds  muriate  of  potash  and 
400  pounds  acid  phosphate,  they  returned  8,660  pounds  an  acre, 
almost  double  the  yield  of  the  unfertilized  plots.  The  beets 
were  marketed  at  $12  a ton,  thus  giving  a return  of  $23.46  on 
an  expenditure  of  $17  for  fertilizers. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  fertilizers,  however,  the  residual 
effect  thereof  on  succeeding  crops  and  the  effect  of  the  1921 
drouth  must  be  considered.  While  the  rainfall  in  1920  during 
the  growing  months  of  April,  May,  June,  July  and  August  was 
18.1  inches,  in  1921  only  12.3  inches  of  rain  fell  during  the  same 


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time.  Undoubtedly,  had  there  been  more  rainfall  the  benefits 
of  fertilizers  and  manures  would  have  been  greater,  but  it  is 
also  certain  that  the  danger  of  early  fall  frosts  would  have 
been  increased.  The  Coddington  Branch  Station  offers  an  op- 
portunity for  the  first  hand  study  of  a particular  type  of  marsh 
soil.  Experiments  will  be  continued  not  only  to  devise  crops 
for  state  marsh  reclamation  projects  but  tillage  methods  and 
weed  control  through  rotation  and  cultivation  together  with 
the  beneficial  effects  gained  from  fertilization  will  be  consid- 
ered in  the  future  investigations. 

Alfalfa,  the  Soil  Improver 

Although  history  informs  us  that  alfalfa  was  grown  in  Italy 
more  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  many  American  farmers 
still  look  upon  it  as  a comparatively  new  crop.  In  Wisconsin 
the  acreage  is,  however,  gradually  increasing,  and  government 
crop  reports  show  that  the  state  has  now  approximately  121,000 
acres  of  alfalfa.  Because  of  its  great  value  as  a feed  for  dairy 
cattle  in  combination  with  silage,  it  is  welcomed  whole-heartedly 
by  Wisconsin  farmers. 

Alfalfa  gives  an  average  yield  of  a ton  more  an  acre  than 
standard  hay  crops,  clover  and  timothy ; and  where  it  can  be 
grown  it  is  helping  to  solve  many  of  the  economic  problems  of 
the  present  day  and  to  supply  the  farmer  with  home  grown 
rations  for  feeding  his  dairy  cattle.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
in  the  alfalfa  areas  of  the  west,  hay  can  be  bought  for  from  $5 
to  $8  a ton  in  the  stack,  baling,  handling  and  freight  costs  make 
the  price  of  this  hay  f.  o.  b.  Wisconsin  range  from  $18  to  $25 
a ton.  High  transportation  costs  serve  as  a protective  tariff  on 
home  grown  alfalfa;  whereas  other  farm  crops  such  as  small 
grains  and  corn  have  been  governed  by  competition  with  the 
nearby  states.  Alfalfa  thus  remains  almost  free  from  competi- 
tion and  proves  itself  a very  profitable  hay  crop. 

With  or  Without  Timothy.  Twenty-four  plots  were  seed- 
ed in  1920  under  the  supervision  of  L.  F.  Graber  and  Nels  T. 
Nelson  (Agronomy)  with  three  varieties,  Grimm,  Common  and 
imported  Turkestan,  each  variety  being  sown  with  and  without 
a mixture  of  one-fourth  timothy.  Four  cutting  stages  were 
selected,  namely,  bud  stage,  half  bloom,  full  bloom  and  seed 


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pod.  It  was  found  that  the  alfalfa-timothy  mixture  for  all  cut- 
ting stages  out-yielded  alfalfa  alone  by  an  increase  of  nearly 
one  ton  per  acre  or  25  per  cent,  the  increase  occurring  entirely 
during  the  first  cutting.  This  may  be  accounted  for  in  the  fact 
that  the  alfalfa  was  but  one  year  old,  and  with  favorable  win- 
ters age  will  increase  the  yielding  capacity  while  tending  to  de- 
crease the  effect  of  the  timothy. 

Two  cuttings  of  alfalfa  alone  in  full  bloom  stage  gave  the 
same  yield  (4.4  tons  an  acre)  as  three  cuttings  in  tenth  bloom 
although  the  quality  of  hay  was  somewhat  inferior. 

Two  cuttings  of  the  alfalfa-timothy  mixture  in  full  bloom 
gave  0.4  tons  an  acre  more  hay  than  three  cuttings  in  the  tenth 
bloom  stage. 

Cut  during  the  seed  stage  (alfalfa  alone),  the  two  crops  of 
rather  coarse,  woody,  or  stemmy  hay  yielded  0.5  tons  less  than 
two  crops  taken  in  the  full  bloom  stage. 

The  seed  stage  with  alfalfa-timothy  mixture  produced  two 
crops  of  coarse  hay  with  timothy  more  abundant  in  the  first  crop 
than  with  any  of  the  earlier  cutting  stages. 

Alfalfa  Seed  Production 

While  Grimm  alfalfa  has  with  a few  exceptions  proven  sup- 
erior in  its  hardiness  to  the  average  common  strain,  the  price 
of  the  seed  has  been  such  of  late  to  make  it  almost  prohibitive  to 
many  Wisconsin  farmers.  With  a falling  market  for  clover 
seed,  soybeans,  and  practically  all  field  crops,  Grimm  is  still  being 
held  at  from  40  to  50  cents  a pound.  More  and  more  it  is  ap- 
pearing that  Wisconsin  must  grow  her  own  seed.  The  past 
year’s  results  have  been  gratifying. 

It  is  estimated  that  our  state  produced  during  the  last  season 
not  less  than  1,000  bushels  of  alfalfa  seed — this  being  largely 
confined  to  the  eastern  counties.  Yields  of  two  bushels  an  acre 
were  not  uncommon,  and  in  one  instance  five  bushels  were  re- 
ported. The  summer  drought  seems  to  have  stimulated  seed 
formation,  and,  while  we  may  not  always  have  weather  condi- 
tions so  favorable,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  with  red 
clover  our  yields  of  seed  average  only  about  two  bushels  an  acre 
and  in  some  seasons  have  been  a failure. 

An  effort  will  be  made  to  develop  a hardy  strain  of  alfalfa 
which  will  tend  to  produce  seed  in  our  humid  climate. 


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Soybeans  for  Light  Soils 

Soybean  plants  were  grown  as  early  as  1898  on  experimental 
plots  of  the  Station  Farm.  One  of  the  first  successful  varieties 
was  the  Early  Black,  and,  while  it  has  been  pedigreed,  other 
varieties  have  also  been  introduced,  such  as  the  Manchu,  Ito  San 
and  Black  Eyebrow  all  of  which  have  been  raised  among  the 
farmers  of  the  state.  The  methods  of  harvesting,  threshing, 
cutting  for  hay  and  silage  have  been  worked  out  to  such  an 
extent  experimentally  that  this  legume  can  now  be  handled  to 
advantage. 

Especially  is  the  soybean  adapted  as  an  emergency  hay  crop 
for  farmers  who  lost  their  clover  seeding  by  winter  killing. 
After  the  failure  of  the  clover  is  discovered  ample  time  remains 
to  put  in  soybeans,  for  they  will  readily  come  into  cutting  stage 
for  hay  within  the  ninety  day  period.  With  yields  of  two  tons 
an  acre  of  good  hay,  which  compares  favorably  with  cutting  of 
red  clover,  soybeans  are  practically  a sure  crop ; and  even  on 
poor  sandy  lands  that  have  grown  soybeans  previously  by  the 
proper  innoculation  of  the  seed,  an  exceedingly  good  growth 
can  be  secured  at  first  attempt.  One  grower,  asked  why  the  field 
remained  so  clean  with  soybeans,  replied,  “The  soil  is  too  poor 
to  raise  weeds.” 

In  Portage  County  soybeans  are  so  popular  that  many  in- 
dividual farmers  have  a total  of  100  acres  or  more  apiece. 
Wisconsin  not  only  grows  all  the  seed  needed  in  our  state  for 
planting  at  the  present  time  but  supplies  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota 
and  the  northern  Michigan  peninsula  with  a large  portion  of 
seed  for  their  farms.  This  has  developed  a very  satisfactory 
seed  business  among  many  farmers  of  the  state. 

Breeding  Increases  Yields.  Soybeans  have  been  grad- 
ually improving  in  the  state,  and  while  it  was  once  deemed 
impossible  to  raise  them  here  effectively  because  they  were  a 
late  maturing  plant,  breeding  methods  have  produced  early 
varieties  adaptable  to  Wisconsin  conditions.  The  acreage  has 
increased  from  4,500  in  1919  to  8,000  in  1920. 

Net  results  obtained  at  Spooner  Branch  Station  by  E.  J. 
Delwiche  (Agronomy)  prove  the  worth  of  the  breeding  work. 
Compared  with  the  parent  strain  as  seed  producers,  the  pedi- 
greed strains  of  Manchuria  showed  that,  while  the  date  of 


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maturity  was  not  changed,  the  yield  has  been  increased  from 
19  per  cent  to  96  per  cent.  All  varieties  ripened  about  Septem- 
ber 19  except  the  Mandarin  Pedigree,  which  was  mature  on 
August  30.  The  Mandarin  has  an  erect  habit  (38  inches  high), 
a high-podding  character,  and  an  early  maturity  thus  making 
it  adaptable  to  a wide  range  of  conditions. 

Tests  at  Marshfield  and  Spooner  Branch  Stations,  in  spite  of 
the  unusually  long  and  hot  season,  again  showed  that  not 
only  do  the  early  types  produce  more  seed  than  the  late  kinds 
but  they  are  equal  to  them  as  producers  of  hay.  Of  the 
twenty-four  varieties  planted  jn  duplicate  plots  at  Marshfield 
the  following  failed  to  ripen  seed  and  were  killed  by  frost 
October  4:  Ebony,  Wilson,  Sable,  Ohio  Manchu,  Mammoth 


FIG.  24. — SOIL  TOO  POOR  TO  RAISE  WEEDS  GROWS  SOYBEANS 

When  this  soybean  grower  was  asked  how  he  maintained  such 
clean  fields,  he  replied,  “The  soil  is  too  poor  to  raise  weeds.” 

Yellow,  Elton,  Hollybrook,  Virginia,  and  Medium  Early 
Green.  The  Medium  Early  Green  and  the  Hollybrook  both 
yielded  2,880  pounds  of  air-dried  hay,  but  the  average  of  the 
later  maturing  was  only  2,500  pounds  an  acre. 

Sudan  Grass  and  Sudan-Soybean  Mixture 

Sudan  grass  has  proved  admirably  adapted  to  late  seeding, 
which  permits  it  to  be  used  not  only  as  an  emergency  hay 
crop  but  also  as  a crop  planted  after  fallowing  to  eradicate 
quack  grass.  Although  the  best  time  for  planting  sudan  is 
during  the  period  from  corn  planting  up  to  the  middle  of  June, 


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yet  in  1921  sudan  seeded  as  late  as  July  was  nearly  headed  out  and 
fit  to  make  into  hay  by  the  latter  part  of  August,  according  to  G.  B. 
Mortimer  (Agronomy).  Two  years  ago  seeding  delayed  until  the 
first  week  in  July  gave  equally  good  results.  Sudan  grass  in  a 
normal  sand  makes  an  excellent  smother  crop  on  account  of  its 
rapid  growth,  the  density  of  its  fibrous  root  system,  and  the  shade 
which  it  gives  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  from  the  beginning. 

Quack  grass  has  been  successfully  eradicated  by  it  at 
the  Station  Farm  in  two  infested  fields.  Trials  with  20-pound 
and  30-pound  rates  of  seeding  broadcast  show  no  material 
gain  in  yield  for  heavier  rate,  the  average  being  3 tons  an  acre 
of  air-dried  hay.  With  good  seed  the  20-pound  or  25-pound 
rate  of  seeding  seems  to  give  the  best  results  with  broadcast 
or  drill. 

Sudan  and  Soybeans  a Good  Combination.  In  1920  it  was 
satisfactorily  proved  that  soybeans  and  sudan  grew  very  well 
when  planted  together;  and  during  1921  different  rates  of  seed- 
ing were  used  to  determine  the  proper  mixture.  The  rate  of 
sudan  grass  used  was  10  pounds  an  acre  and  soybeans  1.5 
bushels  an  acre,  with  the  varieties,  Medium  Early  Green,  Ito 
San,  Manchu,  and  Wisconsin  Early  Black.  The  average  total 
yield  of  the  two  plots  of  the  Medium  Early  Green  was  4.1  tons 
of  cured  hay  an  acre,  of  the  Manchu  4.3  tons,  Ito  San  4.6  tons, 
and  Early  Black  3.5  tons.  The  average  percentages  of  soy- 
beans were  17.5  per  cent,  23  per  cent,  29  per  cent  and  42  per 
cent  respectively.  The  highest  average  in  the  combination 
was  with  the  Early  Black  variety,  where,  due  to  the  advanced 
stage  of  maturity,  nearly  one-half  the  total  weight  of  air-dried 
hay  was  soybeans.  The  early  varieties  seem  preferable,  for 
they  mature  at  nearly  the  same  time  the  sudan  is  cut  for  hay, 
thus  giving  a higher  relative  yield  of  soybeans. 

The  average  percentage  of  soybean  hay  for  the  four  trials, 
being  approximately  25  per  cent,  means  an  increase  in  total 
protein  per  100  pounds  of  dry  roughage  from  8.96  pounds  in 
sudan  hay  alone  to  10.75  pounds  in  sudan-soybean  hay,  an 
increase  of  19.9  per  cent — the  increase  in  pounds  of  protein  per 
100  pounds  being  1.79.  The  average  digestible  protein  content 
per  100  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  sudan  grass  hay,  as  reported 
by  the  Federal  Department,  is  3.89  pounds;  and  allowing  an 


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average  of  25  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  hay  in  the  mixture 
with  soybeans,  the  digestible  protein  content  of  the  hay  would 
be  increased  from  that  figure  to  4.7  pounds  in  the  mixed  hay 
or  an  increase  of  20.8  per  cent  in  digestible  protein. 


FIG.  25. — SOYBEANS  AND  SUDAN  GRASS  EXCELLENT  EMERGENCY 

HAY 

Sudan  grass,  10  pounds  per  acre  with  Ito  San  soybeans,  1.5  bushels 
per  acre.  The  yield  of  air-cured  hay  was  over  4 tons  per  acre.  A mix- 
ture of  this  kind  increases  by  one-fifth  the  digestible  protein. 

Yields  obtained  from  seeding  the  soybeans  in  the  mixtures 
at  one,  one  and  one-half,  and  two  bushel  rates  per  acre  show 
that  one  and  one-half  bushels  is  best.  Cooperators  throughout 
the  state,  who  testify  to  the  estimated  results  obtained  with 
soybeans  and  sudan  especially  upon  lighter  soils,  have  also 
found  this  rate  most  satisfactory.  Soybeans  grow  better  when 
thoroughly  inoculated,  while  the  sudan  grass  does  not  attain 
quite  as  large  a growth,  hence  increasing  still  more  the  per- 
centage of  digestible  protein. 

Canadian  Yellow  Sweet  Clover  a Success 

Two  years  ago  R.  A.  Moore  (Agronomy)  secured  from 
Professor  Lennox,  formerly  of  the  Guelph  Experiment  Station, 


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93 


Canada,  a sample  of  Canadian  Albotrea  sweet  clover.  This 
sample  was  sown  on  the  Station  Farm  in  the  spring  of  1920 
with  oats  as  a nurse  crop.  The  plants  came  up  readily  and 
would  have  afforded  excellent  pasture  in  the  fall  of  1920;  but 
the  crop  was  not  pastured  in  order  to  determine  its  value  in 
1921  as  a hay  and  feed  producer.  The  Albotrea  yellow  blos- 
som sweet  clover  is  much  finer  in  stem  and  more  leafy  than 
the  biennial  white  blossom  sweet  clover.  Consequently  it 
makes  a much  finer  grade  of  hay  and,  as  it  is  earlier  in  matur- 
ing, can  be  cut  at  a time  when  the  season  is  most  favorable  for 
haymaking.  Notwithstanding  the  loss  incurred  from  hulling 
with  an  ordinary  threshing  machine,  the  Albotrea  yielded 
twelve  bushels  an  acre  this  year. 

This  yellow  blossom  sweet  clover  promises  to  become  one 
of  Wisconsin’s  staple  forage  crops.  It  has  a decided  advan- 
tage over  the  Hubam  sweet  clover  both  in  abundance  of 
growth  and  ability  to  grow  on  wide  variations  of  soils.  More- 
over, it  is  not  necessary  to  grow  it  under  cultivated  conditions 
as  is  done  with  the  Hubam  sweet  clover,  for  it  will  catch 
readily  when  sown  in  the  same  way  as  the  common  red  clover. 
This  enables  people  in  sections  of  the  state  where  it  is  now 
almost  an  impossibility  to  grow  the  red  clovers  to  put  in  a 
leguminous  clover  for  hay  and  seed.  Seed  yields  are  more 
than  double  the  amount  of  biennial  clover  seed,  and  yet  it  can 
be  grown  on  soil  where  it  is  impossible  to  get  a catch  of  the 
biennial  white  sweet  clover.  Seed  which  has  thus  far  been 
cleaned  and  scarified  will  be  sent  out  the  coming  year  to  co- 
operators  in  various  parts  of  the  state  for  conclusive  tests  of 
the  advantages  of  this  promising  crop. 

Trials  With  Hubam  Sweet  Clover 

For  several  years  extravagant  statements  of  the  merits  of 
the  annual  white  blossom  sweet  clover  called  Hubam  have 
come  from  various  sources.  This  clover  has  been  studied  for 
three  years  at  the  Experiment  Station,  more  extensively  in 
1921  than  before,  but  up  to  the  present  time  there  is  nothing  to 
warrant  continuing  the  growth  of  the  Hubam  clover. 

All  field  tests  were  failures,  and  weeds  grew  so  abundantly 
the  clover  did  not  make  even  good  hay,  according  to  R.  A. 
Moore  (Agronomy  Department).  One  plot  grown  under  gar- 


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den  conditions  and  cultivated  yielded  five  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre,  although  cultivation  under  ordinary  farm  conditions  is 
impractical.  As  a general  field  crop,  these  results  show  that 
Hubam  is  a failure ; and  growers  should  be  warned  against 
purchasing  the  high-priced  seed.  As  a honey  producing  plant 
it  will  probably  find  favor  among  bee  men,  as  it  is  a later 
flowering  plant  than  the  biennial  sweet  clover. 

Kudzu  May  Prove  New  Forage  Plant 

Kudzu  (Pueraria  thunbergiana)  is  a leguminous  vine  intro- 
duced from  Japan.  It  has  been  grown  in  the  United  States 
since  1876,  but  only  recently  has  attracted  attention  as  a plant 
of  economic  importance.  While  the  Japanese  grow  it  on  hill- 
sides and  use  it  for  pasture,  they  also  make  the  stems  into 
grass  cloth.  The  roots,  which  are  rich  in  starch,  are  some- 
times used  for  human  food,  and  occasionally  hay  is  made  from 
the  vine.  Kudzu  is  relatively  hardy  and  thrives  best  in  parts 
of  the  eastern  United  States,  where  the  climate  is  moist  and 
warm;  but  it  will  live  through  the  winters  as  far  north  as 
Nova  Scotia. 

Under  field  conditions  Kudzu  produces  long  prostrate 
branches,  having  many  joints  from  which  leaf  petioles  grow 
up,  each  bearing  three  leaves  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
bean.  When  these  joints  come  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
roots  start  and  new  plants  are  thus  propagated.  As  the  Kudzu 
plant  produces  only  a few  poorly  germinating  seeds,  it  is  the 
usual  custom  to  start  a field  by  planting  cuttings  or  young 
plants  started  from  cuttings. 

Horses  and  cows  eat  the  green  leaves  readily.  Hay  is 
palatable  to  the  animals,  although  a very  rank  growth  in  the 
largest  vines  usually  makes  it  tough  for  the  cows  to  eat.  Ac- 
cording to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  how- 
ever, “chemical  analysis  indicates  that  Kudzu  is  very  nutriti- 
ous, being  comparable  to  alfalfa  and  clover.” 

Experiments  conducted  in  1921  by  H.  W.  Albertz  proved 
very  interesting.  The  plants  obtained  from  Charles  E.  Leach, 
Cherokee  Farms,  Monticello,  Florida,  were  set  in  rows  4 
feet  apart  and  4 feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  vines  grew  to 


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95 


20  feet  in  length  with  the  joints  from  10  to  15  inches  long 
and  the  length  of  the  leaves  from  6 to  12  inches.  Although 
the  older  stems  were  found  to  be  tough,  the  leaves  of  the 
younger  shoots  were  tender;  and  when  the  second  growth 
arrived,  it  produced  much  finer  vines  and  more  leaves.  Vines 
with  the  leaves  were  fed  to  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs  and  seemed 


FIG.  26.— KUDZU  VINE 

This  vigorous  vine  may  prove  a valuable  forage  crop  for  Wiscon- 
sin— especially  in  the  newly-cleared  areas. 


to  be  relished  by  all  of  them.  But  it  is  yet  necessary  to  de- 
termine whether  the  plants  will  withstand  Wisconsin  winters, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  determine  its  worth  as  a forage  plant  in 
the  cut-over  lands  of  upper  Wisconsin. 


Sunflowers  for  Silage 

During  recent  years  much  attention  has  been  attracted  to  the 
use  of  sunflowers  as  a new  silage  crop,  and  in  some  states  sun- 
flowers have  been  hailed  as  the  solution  to  the  corn  problem. 
Investigations  conducted  in  Wisconsin  by  E.  D.  Holden  (Agron- 
omy) during  1919,  1920  and  1921  show  that  sunflowers  can  be 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


grown  successfully  under  almost  any  climatic  and  soil  condi- 
tions to  be  found  in  the  state  and  that  they  yield  a larger  ton- 
nage of  green  material  than  any  other  silage  crop.  However, 
one  of  the  most  important  questions  yet  remains  unsolved,  that 
is,  the  value  of  sunflower  silage  as  a feed  for  dairy  cows. 

The  1920  crop  of  sunflowers  grown  on  the  University  Marsh 
was  cut  August  29  and  September  1 when  the  plants  averaged 
one-third  in  bloom.  The  lower  leaves  of  the  plants  were  dried 
up  and  brown,  yet  the  crop  was  only  slightly  attacked  by  rust, 
and  the  freshly  cut  silage  contained  83  per  cent  moisture.  By 
cutting  and  ensiling  the  crop  early  and  at  a comparatively  im- 
mature stage,  it  was  planned  to  avoid  if  possible  the  tough, 
woody  material  frequently  found  in  silage  made  from  more  ma- 
ture plants.  During  the  winter  the  silo  was  opened  and  some 
cows  started  on  a part  ration  of  the  silage  preliminary  to  a feed- 
ing test.  Sunflower  silage  was  somewhat  more  acid  than  corn 
silage  from  the  same  field  and  contained  a considerable  amount 
of  fibrous  woody  material.  Although  in  a number  of  weeks’ 
feeding  the  cows  were  induced  to  clean  up  more  of  the  sun- 
flower silage,  they  did  not  take  to  it  readily  but  picked  out  the 
corn  in  the  mixture. 

Sunflowers  grown  at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  under  the 
direction  of  E;  J.  Delwiche  (Agronomy)  during  1920  were  put 
up  in  two  lots,  one  from  a cutting  when  but  few  of  the  plants 
were  in  bloom,  the  other  in  full  bloom.  The  silage  from  the 
later  cutting  proved  to  be  unpalatable  and  of  poor  quality,  and 
the  cows  ate  it  sparingly  and  fell  off  in  milk  production.  Silage 
from  the  early  cutting,  however,  was  eaten  readily  by  the  cattle 
and  with  no  decrease  in  milk  flow. 

Various  reports  from  farmers  throughout  the  state  have  shown 
experiences  quite  similar  to  those  at  the  Experiment  Station, 
Some  are  discouraged  in  the  use  of  sunflowers  while  others 
praise  it  as  being  one  of  the  best  crops  they  have  ever  grown. 

Some  prevailing  opinions  throughout  the  state  seem  to  be: 

1.  Sunflowers  should  be  cut  during  the  budding  or  early  blos- 
soming stage,  that  is,  early  enough  to  prevent  the  stalks 
from  becoming  woody. 


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97 


Plants  four  inches  apart 
in  row. 


Plants  IS  to  18  inches 
apart  in  row.  Stalks  too 
heavy  for  good  silage. 


FIG.  27.— PROPER  PLANTING  NECESSARY  FOR  BEST  SILAGE 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


2.  Mixed  silage  of  corn  and  sunflowers  often  gives  excellent 

results. 

3.  The  crop  is  better  when  the  corn  and  sunflowers  are  grown 

separately  than  when  they  are  both  grown  together. 

4.  Generally  where  corn  can  be  grown  to  good  advantage  as 

a silage  crop,  it  does  not  pay  to  raise  sunflowers. 

5.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  state  sunflowers  are  proving  very 

advantageous  as  a silage  crop. 

Sunflower  Blight  and  Time  of  Cutting.  During  the  last  three 

seasons  both  in  our  own  fields  and  in  those  of  many  growers 
the  lower  leaves  of  the  sunflowers  planted  for  silage  began  to 
dry  up  and  turn  brown  somewhat  before  or  during  the  blossom- 
ing period,  and  the  withering  of  the  leaves  continued  up  the 
stalks  until  the  crop  was  cut.  This  condition  is  worse  in  a dry 
season  than  in  a wet  one  and  worse  on  high  dry  soil  than  on 
low  moist  land.  Under  drouth  conditions  late  plantings  are 
particularly  affected  by  this  blight ; in  thick  plantings  the  leaves 
begin  to  wither  earlier  and  the  loss  of  leaves  is  greater  than 
in  thinner  planting.  If  the  leaves  are  attacked  by  rust  the  with- 
ering is  hastened  and  is  more  extensive.  Much  of  the  evil  effect 
of  this  blight  can  be  prevented  by  early  cutting,  for  the  prepon- 
derance of  poor  silage  comes  from  sunflowers  cut  when  quite 
mature,  while  most  of  the  good  silage  is  made  by  ensiling  during 
the  early  blossoming  stage.  Exceptions  occur  when  the  soil 
is  rich  and  moist,  but  experience  shows  that  the  early  cutting  is 
desirable  if  the  leaves  are  to  be  saved  for  palatable  silage.  Sun- 
flowers planted  at  corn  planting  time  or  before  may  be  ready 
the  first  half  of  August,  while  if  they  are  planted  in  the  middle 
of  June  or  later,  they  may  be  cut  during  the  first  part  of  Sep- 
tember. 

Thickness  of  planting.  Inasmuch  as  the  condition  of  the 
stalk  and  the  freshness  of  the  leaves  greatly  influence  the  quality 
of  silage,  the  thickness  of  planting  has  considerable  influence. 
The  best  results  have  been  obtained  when  the  plants  do  not  av- 
erage closer  than  6 inches  apart  in  the  drilled  row.  In  the  tests 
no  difference  in  the  condition  of  leaves  could  be  seen  between 
planting  6 inches  and  10  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Further,  by 
cutting  the  sunflowers  as  short  as  possible  with  the  silage  cutter, 
the  hard  woody  pieces  of  stalk  which  may  otherwise  appear,  can 
often  be  avoided. 


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99 


Corn  and  Sunflowers  for  Mixed  Silage 

During  1919  and  1920  several  fields  planted  to  mixtures  of 
corn  and  sunflowers  were  observed,  but  the  results  were  rather 
unfavorable.  Where  the  sunflowers  formed  a large  part  of  the 


FIG.  28.— SUNFLOWERS  AND  CORN  GROWN  FOR  SILAGE 


Sunflowers  and  corn,  two  rows  of  each  alternating,  for  mixed  sil- 
age, Marshfield,  August  13. 

crop,  the  corn  was  badly  handicapped  because  of  the  rank  growth 
and  dense  shade.  The  stalks  became  spindling  and  the  ears 
small;  many  stalks  did  not  bear  any  ears.  Where  corn  was 
the  major  part  of  the  crops  and  made  a normal  growth,  the 
sunflowers  were  so  few  that  the  benefit  of  the  greater  yield  of 
the  sunflowers  seemed  largely  lost,  for  the  increase  in  yield 
hardly  offset  the  extra  labor  required  to  handle  the  top-heavy 
sunflowers.  Furthermore,  the  sunflowers  arrived  at  the  best 
stage  for  ensiling  earlier  than  the  corn  so  that  if  the  crop  was 
cut  when  the  sunflowers  were  ripe,  the  corn  was  immature, 
while  if  cutting  was  put  off  until  the  corn  was  sufficiently  ma- 
ture, the  sunflowers  became  woody  and  tough. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


At  the  Marshfield  Branch  Station  corn  and  sunflowers  drilled 
together  in  rows  in  three  different  proportions  gave  the  follow- 
ing results : 

All  sunflowers  11.5  tons  per  acre 

Corn  and  sunflowers,  planted  1 to  1 by  volume 11.5  ” ” ” 

Corn  and  sunflowers,  planted  2 to  1 by  volume..~....12.3  ” ” ” 

Corn  and  sunflowers,  planted  3 to  1 by  volume 10.7  ” ” ” 


FIG.  29.— SUNFLOWERS  EFFECTIVE  SMOTHER  CROP 

Sunflowers  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  45  pounds  an  acre,  for  a weed 
smother  crop  at  Marshfield  Branch  Station. 


Although  the  quality  of  the  silage  has  not  yet  been  tested  the 
highest  yield  was  noticeably  from  the  plot  where  2 of  corn  to  1 
of  sunflower  seed  was  used  in  planting. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


101 


By  following  the  practice  of  some  growers  who  plant  the 
sunflowers  and  corn  separately,  then  mix  them  in  ensiling,  some 
of  the  disadvantages  of  growing  the  two  together  have  been 
overcome.  Another  method,  observed  in  two  fields,  was  to  plant 
two  rows  of  each,  corn  and  sunflowers,  alternately.  This  was 
done  by  filling  one  hopper  of  the  corn  planter  with  corn  and 
the  other  with  sunflower  seed.  The  corn  in  these  fields  made 
a normal  growth,  not  suffering  from  the  competition  with  the 
sunflowers  as  when  the  two  were  planted  together  in  the  row. 
By  this  method  the  bundles  of  corn  and  sunflowers  can  be 
thrown  onto  the  same  wagon  from  one  side  and  the  other,  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  secure  a very  even  mixture  in  the  silo.  Some 
growers  have  planted  corn  and  sunflowers  together  even  where 
corn  can  be  grown,  so  that  if  the  corn  should  be  killed  by  an 
early  frost,  the  sunflowers  will  still  make  good  silage. 

Sunflowers  as  an  Aid  in  Weed  Control 

As  a cultivated  crop,  sunflowers  are  very  effective  in  con- 
trolling weeds,  because  of  the  cultivation  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season  and  the  dense  growth  made  by  the  crop  in  the  mid- 
dle and  latter  part.  To  increase  the  effectiveness  of  such  con- 
trol, some  growers  fallow  the  ground  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  planting  the  sunflowers,  late  along  the  first  to  the 
middle  of  June.  At  the  Marshfield  Branch  Station  a field  was 
fallowed  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  sunflower  seed  being 
broadcasted  at  the  rate  of  45  pounds  per  acre  early  in  June. 
The  sunflowers  grew  exceedingly  dense,  and  inspection  in 
July  and  August  showed  the  ground  to  be  absolutely  bare  of 
other  vegetation,  proving  the  sunflowers  to  be  a most  effective 
smother  crop.  The  yield  of  this  broadcasted  field  was  8.25 
tons  per  acre  of  green  silage  material. 

Cold  Resistant  Golden  Glow  Continues  Successful 

While  it  has  been  possible  to  breed  varieties  of  corn  which 
will  ripen  seed  in  the  extreme  upper  part  of  Wisconsin, 
efforts  have  not  been  diminished  to  obtain  a corn  which  will 
serve  for  both  silage  and  seed.  For  several  years  B.  D.  Leith 
(Agronomy)  has  been  testing  common  Golden  Glow  corn  with 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


cold  resistant  corn  which  he  has  obtained  by  germinating  in 
an  ice  box.  He  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  a corn  which  can 
be  planted  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier  than  ordinary 
corn.  Planting  in  1921  was  made  on  April  29,  and  the  corn 
was  inspected  August  22,  when  it  was  found  that  while  all 


/ 


FIG.  30.— COLD -RESISTANT  CORN  IN  BREEDING  ROWS 

This  corn  is  selected  for  hardiness,  large  amount  of  forage  and 
earliness.  Marinette  county  is  at  present  a center  of  production. 


the  ears  of  the  cold  resistant  corn  were  ripe,  on  the  common 
Golden  Glow  corn  the  percentage  ranged  from  76  per  cent  to 
80  per  cent  mature  ears.  In  Polk  and  Marinette  Counties 
cold  resistant  corn  is  proving  very  popular,  for,  with  its  large 
stalk  and  foliage  and  its  early  maturing  ability,  it  is  an  excel- 
lent dual-purpose  corn. 


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103 


High  Corn  Yields  in  Upper  Wisconsin 

Aside  from  variety  testing,  the  work  at  Spooner  has  been  to 
improve  the  Wisconsin  No.  25  (small  yellow  dent)  by  getting 
rid  of  dwarf  and  weak  stalks  and  shortening  the  shank.  No. 
25  at  Spooner  yielded  80  bushels  per  acre  and  at  Marshfield 
73  bushels.  Planting  tests  were  conducted  by  putting  corn 
in  the  ground  May  1,  10,  20,  and  30.  At  Spooner  the  corn 
planted  on  May  2 froze  almost  to  the  ground  on  June  4,  but 
it  recovered,  was  ripe  on  August  22,  and  after  husking  time  it 
yielded  77  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per  acre.  Corn  planted  May 
10  was  ripe  two  days  later  with  the  same  yield ; corn  planted 
on  May  20  was  ripe  August  29  and  yielded  86  bushels  per 
acre;  while  corn  planted  May  31  was  ripe  on  September  6 
and  yielded  98  bushels  an  acre.  This  late  date  corresponds 
with  the  yield  from  Golden  Glow  planted  eight  days  earlier. 
These  results  seem  to  indicate  that  early  varieties  produce 
bigger  yields  if  planted  late,  provided  the  frost  is  later  in 
the  fall. 

Drilling  Versus  Broadcasting 

While  the  drill  has  been  generally  advocated  as  a grain 
seeding  implement  in  preference  to  the  broadcaster,  many  of 
our  best  farmers  claim  the  drill  is  not  suitable  to  their  condi- 
tions and  prefer  the  broadcaster.  Undoubtedly  the  type  of 
soil  enters  into  this  question.  It  was  not  possible  to  carry 
on  a test  on  different  kinds  of  soil  at  the  Station,  but  a drilling 
and  broadcasting  experiment  has  been  carried  on  for  seven 

years  on  the  Miami  silt  loam  soil  of  the  test  plots. 

TABLE  II.— DRILLING  VERSUS  BROADCASTING — AVERAGE 
YIELDS  PER  ACRE 

Drilled,  Broadcasted, 

7 year  average  7 year  average 

Marquis  Spring  Wheat,  Wis.  50 18.7  bu.  18.6  bu. 

Oats,  Wis.  Ped.  1 57.1  bu.  61.5  bu. 

Barley,  Wis.  Ped.  6 45.6  bu.  46.0  bu. 

The  results  from  year  to  year  fluctuated  slightly,  in  some 
instances  the  drilling  showed  a slight  advantage  and  some- 
times the  broadcasting  did.  The  seven  year  average  shows  no 
advantage  of  drilling  over  broadcasting.  A three-year  test 
with  winter  wheat  shows  no  advantage  of  the  drill  over  the 
broadcaster  if  sown  before  the  twenty-second  of  September. 
When  the  broadcaster  is  used,  the  ground  is  often  worked 


I 


104  Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


less  than  where  the  drill  is  used.  Thus  on  heavy  soils  the 
seed  bed  must  be  well  worked,  and  the  broadcaster  will  then 
give  as  good  results  as  the  drill  on  clay  soils. 


FIG.  31. — CAREFUL  WORK  MAKES  WISCONSIN  LEADER  IN  PURE- 
BRED SEEDS 

Pedigreed  strains  are  first  tested  in  small  plots.  The  product  of  each 
plot  is  threshed,  weighed,  and  scaled  separately.  Machine  and  rakes 
are  all  carefully  cleaned  to  prevent  mixtures. 

Early  Oats  Prove  Best  in  1921 

In  test  plots  under  the  supervision  of  B.  D.  Leith  (Agron- 
omy), the  Kherson  types  of  oats  ranged  from  47  to  57.5  bush- 
els an  acre  while  the  medium  late  varieties  ranged  from  13 
to  41  bushels  an  acre.  Early  Kherson  oats  has  an  apparent 
advantage  in  such  a season  as  that  of  1921  where  heat  and 
drouth  appear  early  in  the  season ; and  in  the  southern  part 
of  Wisconsin  the  Kherson  strains  are  to  be  recommended. 

Breed  to  Change  Color  of  Kherson.  In  order  to  remove  the 
objectionable  yellow  color  of  this  oats,  crosses  were  made  be- 
tween the  sixty-day,  a Kherson  type,  and  the  Big  Four  (Wis- 
consin Pedigree  No.  2)  of  the  medium  late  white  type  in  1911. 
Selections  for  white  color,  earliness,  and  large  size  have  been 
carried  on  until  Pedigree  No.  19  has  been  produced,  which 
shows  up  well  in  yield,  is  white  in  color,  and  is  two  or  three 
days  earlier  on  an  average  than  Pedigree  No.  7. 

Rye  Versus  Wheat  or  Oats 

Five-year  averages  at  Marshfield,  according  to  Mr.  Del- 
wiche,  shows  a yield  of  48.0  bushels  an  acre  for  rye  and  21.0 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


105 


bushels  for  wheat.  At  the  ruling  prices  for  the  two  grains, 
this  makes  rye  the  most  profitable  crop  to  grow  in  that  sec- 
tion of  the  state.  At  Ashland  the  difference  in  rye  and  wheat 
yields  is  not  so  great,  and  wheat  is  therefore  more  profitable. 

Experiments  comparing  rye  and  oats  were  similarly  con- 
ducted at  Marshfield,  Spooner,  and  Conrath.  The  five-year 
average  yield  of  rye  was  2,615  pounds  or  46.7  bushels  an  acre, 
while  that  of  oats  was  1,507  pounds  or  47.1  bushels,  thus  giv- 
ing rye  an  advantage  of  over  1,100  pounds.  Oats  planted  after 
corn  in  the  rotation  yielded  777  pounds  or  24.3  bushels  an  acre 


FIG.  32. — A FIEDD  OF  WISCONSIN  PEDIGREED  No.  2 RYE 


The  Wisconsin  Pedigreed  No.  2 rye  leads  in  yield.  It  has  averaged 
7.7  bushels  per  acre  higher  in  yield  than  the  Rosen  during  a four-year 
average. 

as  against  1,001  pounds  or  31.3  bushels  of  rye.  When  planted 
after  rye,  the  oats  produced  as  well  as  if  planted  after  corn, 
and  this  year  the  yields  were  777  pounds  or  24  bushels  after 
corn  and  847  pounds  or  26.5  bushels  after  rye. 

At  Conrath,  oats  yielded  838  pounds  as  against  1,024  pounds 
of  rye,  while  at  Spooner  the  oats  were  practically  a failure, 
the  yield  being  below  10  bushels  an  acre  and  the  rye  being 
over  19  bushels.  These  results  show  the  advantage  of  rye 
over  oats  on  the  productive  loam  soil  of  central  Wisconsin. 


106 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Where  dairying  is  carried  on  intensively,  rye  should  be  sown 
after  corn  and  cultivated  crops,  and  then  followed  by  oats,  as 
this  method  serves  both  to  increase  the  dry  matter  and,  at  the 
same  time  to  prevent  the  lodging  of  oats. 

Home  Grown  Clover  Seed  Best 

Clover  variety  tests  initiated  in  1920  are  still  in  progress. 
Results  this  year  show  conclusively  that  imported  red  clover 
seed,  at  least  that  from  regions  of  mild  winters,  does  not  stand 
Wisconsin  winters.  The  test  further  demonstrates  that  red 
clover,  originally  imported  from  Europe  but  grown  in  America 
for  a long  term,  has  become  acclimated  undoubtedly  through 
the  survival  of  the  hardiest  plants.  At  Ashland,  Marshfield, 
and  Spooner,  Italian  varieties  showing  100  per  cent  stands  in 
the  fall  had  dropped  to  10  per  cent  in  the  spring  at  Ashland, 
while  at  the  other  stations  the  entire  plots  had  winter-killed. 
With  South  Dakota,  Ohio,  and  homegrown  seeds  the  stand 
in  the  spring  at  Ashland  and  Spooner  remained  90  and  95  per 
cent,  respectively,  although  at  Marshfield  the  stand  was  only 
40  and  45  per  cent  of  that  in  the  fall.  Clover  seed  coming 
from  sections  of  mild  winters  should  not  be  planted  in  Wis- 
consin. 


Breeding  Spring  and  Winter  Wheats 

During  the  past  season,  work  in  breeding  spring  and 
winter  wheats  has  been  continued  at  the  Branch  Stations  by 
Mr.  Delwiche  with  especial  reference  to  M1611,  a pedi- 
greed Early  Java.  At  Marshfield  this  variety  yielded  16.5 
bushels  an  acre  while  Marquis  yielded  only  6.7  bushels. 
In  the  plots  at  Ashland  it  was  much  more  resistant  to  stem 
rust  than  other  varieties.  The  clean  stems  showing  no  rust 
were  as  follows:  New  Java,  77  per  cent;  common  Early  Java, 
35  per  cent;  Marquis,  40  per  cent;  Fife,  35  per  cent;  and 
Durum,  25  per  cent.  Although  this  is  a very  promising  spring 
wheat  and  out  yielded  all  other  wheats  tried,  at  Ashland  its 
total  yield  per  acre  was  only  11.4  bushels,  less  than  half  as  much 
as  winter  wheats.  The  new  strain  M1611  promises  to  be  well 
adapted  to  central  Wisconsin  conditions,  but  in  the  Superior 
region  winter  wheat  is  preferred  to  spring  wheat. 


* Cooperation,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  D.  A. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


107 


FIG.  33. — PEDIGREED  EARLY  JAVA  RESISTS  RUST 

The  early  Java  Stock  (1)  yielded  only  9.0  bushels  an  acre  for  a five- 
year  average;  the  new  pedigree  (2)  yielded  16.0  bushels  an  acre  during 
the  same  time. 

At  Ashland  the  five  highest  yielding  wheats  were  all  hard 
winter  varieties  of  the  bearded  type,  yielding  as  follows : 
Pedigree  11823B,  30.4  bushels;  11837,  29.4  bushels;  11825,  28.9 
bushels;  1047,  28.1  bushels;  and  408,  26.8  bushels.  Extreme 
hot  weather  at  Marshfield  reacted  unfavorably,  and  for  the 
first  time  the  winter  wheat  yield  did  not  exceed  the  spring 
wheat  yield. 

How  Late  Shall  Winter  Wheat  be  Planted? 

It  is  often  impossible  to  seed  winter  wheat  early  in  Sep- 
tember, due  to  the  general  custom  in  Wisconsin  of  planting 
winter  wheat  on  ground  from  which  the  silage  corn  has  been 
removed.  Winter  wheat  is  still  maintaining  higher  yields  than 


108 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


spring  wheat ; and,  in  a nine-year  average,  Marquis,  the  high- 
est yielding  spring  wheat,  gave  an  average  of  23.2  bushels  per 
acre;  while  the  Pedigreed  No.  2 Turkey  Red  wheat  yielded 
37.2  bushels  per  acre  for  the  same  period,  and  Pedigree  408 
Bacska  yielded  35.9  bushels  per  acre.  Seven-year  tests  have 
been  conducted  on  time  and  rate  of  seeding  winter  wheat  by 
Mr.  Leith ; and  it  seems  entirely  safe  to  recommend  fall  plant- 
ing of  winter  wheat  in  the  latitude  of  Madison  as  late  as  the 
last  week  in  September. 


TABLE  HI— ADVANTAGE  OF  PLANTING  BEFORE  OCTOBER  1. 


Time  of  Planting 

Bushels 

August  20-25 

3 

year 

average 

32.4 

August  27-September  13 

4 

year 

average 

35.5 

September  13-25  . 

7 

year 

average 

36.7 

September  26-October  10 

year 

average 

33.3 

October  11-21.. 

4 

year 

average - 

20.6 

The  effect  of  various  seeding  rates  has  been  studied  for 
seven  years,  and  no  advantage  has  been  obtained  by  seeding 
two  bushels  rather  than  one  bushel  an  acre. 

Rate  of  seeding  winter  wheat  (7-year  average)  : 


1 bushel 33.6 

iy2  bushels 32.9 

2 bushels 33.9 


Hemp  Remains  the  Important  Fiber  Crop  for  Wisconsin* 

As  is  true  with  many  other  industries  the  depressed  eco- 
nomic situation  has  created  a critical  situation  in  the  hemp 
industry.  The  1919  crop  was  moved  to  good  advantage,  but 
of  the  1920  crop  not  over  50  per  cent  had  been  sold  on  October 
1,  1921.  It  was  this  crop  that  had  previously  been  purchased 
on  contract  from  the  growers  at  a price  too  high  to  permit  the 
scutch  mills  to  dispose  of  it  at  a satisfactory  price.  Further- 
more, domestic  hemp  has  been  obliged  to  compete  with  for- 
eign fibers,  while  the  prices  have  been  affected  by  propor- 
tionately high  transportation  rates.  At  the  present  time  freight 
rates  from  Wisconsin  points  to  eastern  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts are  practically  as  high  as  the  ocean  freight  rates  from 

• Cooperation  with  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  A. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


109 


European  ports  to  the  Atlantic  seaports.  In  order  to  tide  the 
industry  along  until  the  country  again  is  normal,  new  mar- 
kets and  new  uses  for  hemp  have  been  developed,  and  efforts 
are  being  directed  toward  reducing  freight  rates  and  obtain- 
ing a tariff  on  the  imported  fiber. 

Particularly  successful  have  been  the  efforts  to  encourage 
the  use  of  Wisconsin  hemp  by  manufacturers  of  coarse  cord- 
age and  rope.  While  in  previous  years  the  thread  manufac- 
turers were  our  principal  buyers,  the  low  prices  of  European 
flax  have  practically  eliminated  that  market.  A tariff  rate  of 
three-fourths  of  a cent  upon  imported  hemp  was  inserted  in 
the  bill  which  passed  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  it  is 
not  sufficient  to  properly  protect  this  new  industry.  When  the 
bilPis  listed  for  final  consideration  efforts  will  be  made  to 
impose  a higher  rate  . 

Seed  Situation  Much  Better.  Sufficient  acreage  has  been 
contracted  for  with  the  hemp  seed  growers  in  Kentucky  to 
satisfy  all  normal  Wisconsin  requirements.  As  a protection, 
however,  breeding  work  has  been  carried  on  with  the  growing 
of  hemp  seed  in  Wisconsin,  and  this  year  several  acres  of  the 
Ferramington  variety  have  been  grown  in  several  parts  of  the 
state.  The  acreage  is  sufficient  to  determine  whether  this 
variety  will  prove  satisfactory  for  fiber  purposes,  and  if  it 
proves  successful,  we  shall  be  in  a position  to  supply  abundant 
seed  of  a pure  strain  for  the  commercial  production  of  the 
crop.  The  difficulty  in  producing  our  own  hemp  seed  is  that 
our  season  is  ordinarily  too  short  to  mature  the  strains  of 
hemp  most  suitable  for  fiber  production.  It  is  also  a question 
whether  or  not  a variety  can  be  developed  which  will  yield 
satisfactory  fiber  and  whether  our  own  farmers  can  afford  to 
grow  hemp  seed  in  competition  with  the  Kentucky  grower. 
Natural  conditions  in  the  Kentucky  river  bottoms  lend  them- 
selves to  the  profitable  production  of  hemp  seed,  and  it  may 
be  that  we  had  better  rely  upon  Kentucky  growers  rather 
than  upon  seed  which  may  be  produced  in  Wisconsin. 

In  spite  of  the  development  of  the  unfavorable  conditions 
in  connection  with  crop  in  1920,  the  acreage  in  1921  increased. 
This  was  due  not  to  the  addition  of  new  centers  of  production 
but  to  an  increased  acreage  in  the  section  where  the  hemp 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


industry  was  already  established.  During  1921  Wisconsin 
produced  three-fourths  of  the  entire  hemp  fiber  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  amount  grown  here  during  that  year  was  8,000 
acres,  more  than  1,000  acres  over  that  of  the  preceding  year. 


FIG.  34.— FIBRE  FLAX  SEED  PLOTS 

While  present  conditions  do  not  favor  growing-  flax  for  fiber  yet 
producing  fiber-flax  seed  at  six  bushels  an  acre  offers  possibilities. 


With  only  400  acres  of  hemp  in  Wisconsin  in  1915  the  acreage 
in  1921  has  increased  to  8,000  acres  or  more  than  twenty  times 
that  of  six  years  ago. 

Fiber  Flax  Seed  Growing 

Fiber  flax  of  good  quality  can  be  produced  in  many  sections 
of  Wisconsin,  according  to  experimental  work  in  previous 
years  conducted  by  Mr.  Wright.  The  suitability  of  the  Buena 
Vista  marsh  for  fiber  flax  was  investigated  during  the  season  of 
1921.  Part  of  the  plots  were  on  the  Branch  Station  Farm  and 
part  on  the  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute  property.  Tests  on 
the  substation  were  in  charge  of  Mr.  Malloy,  while  the  other 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


111 


tests  were  in  charge  of  Mr.  Nelson.  The  season  was  unfavor- 
able, and,  as  a result,  the  fiber  flax  was  an  unsuccessful  crop. 
When  grown  on  old  land,  it  was  necessary  to  remove  the  weeds 
by  hand  in  order  to  prevent  the  choking  of  the  flax;  although 
when  it  was  planted  on  sod  land,  the  flax  was  comparatively  free 
from  weeds.  From  one  year’s  trial  and  other  available  data  it 
appears  that  fiber  flax  has  not  made  a showing  sufficient  to  war- 
rant its  commercial  production  on  marsh  soils.  Until  the  mat- 
ter has  been  thoroughly  investigated,  it  is  not  advisable  for  any 
linen  company  to  erect  a plant  to  produce  flax  fiber  in  competi- 
tion with  flax  of  foreign  countries. 

While  present  economic  conditions  do  not  warrant  establish- 
ing a commercial  fiber  flax  industry  depending  upon  the  pres- 
ent machinery  and  equipment  that  is  available  for  handling 
the  crop,  a small  industry  might  be  developed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  improved  fiber  flax  seed. 

Fiber  Flax  Seed.  Investigation  of  fiber  flax  seed  showed 
that  there  were  no  varieties  of  fiber  flax  grown  upon  a com- 
mercial scale  which  could  be  considered  pure,  although  fiber 
flax  readily  lends  itself  to  improvement  by  selection.  Pure 
strains  originally  selected  by  the  Federal  Office  of  Fiber  In- 
vestigations have  been  tested  on  the  Experiment  Station  Farm 
for  several  years.  All  strains  have  been  eliminated  except  one 
named  “Saginaw,”  which  is  superior  in  height,  freedom  from 
branching,  purity,  resistance  to  lodging,  and  to  disease.  A 
two-acre  field  in  1921  made  a very  satisfactory  growth  and 
averaged  approximately  forty  inches  in  height.  This  was  from 
six  inches  to  a foot  higher  than  that  of  other  strains  of  fiber 
flax  grown  commercially  during  the  same  season  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  while  the  yield  was  six  bushels  an  acre. 
It  appears  that  seed  from  such  a strain  would  find  a good 
market,  for  it  is  a general  custom  in  nearly  all  fiber  flax  grow- 
ing sections  to  import  new  seed  after  the  second  or  third  year ; 
in  Ireland  all  seed  is  imported,  because  the  fiber  plants  are 
harvested  before  they  mature  seed.  The  problem  now  re- 
mains to  discover  whether  the  seed  of  this  particular  strain 
will  prove  satisfactory  for  commercial  fiber  flax  sections.  In 
addition  to  the  seed,  the  straw  will  be  a valuable  by-product 
as  there  is  already  a market  for  green  flax  straw  among  manu- 
facturers of  upholstery,  insulating  material,  and  linen  rugs. 


112 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Breeding  More  Syrup  Into  Sorghum 

In  addition  to  selecting  for  visible  characters,  such  as  type 
of  plant,  freedom  from  branching,  height,  maturity,  and  the 
like,  Mr.  Wright  has  also  been  selecting  and  testing  plants 
for  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  juice.  It  is  planned  to 
develop  a strain  which  has  a higher  percentage  of  total  solids 
in  the  juice  than  that  of  other  strains,  thus  yielding  a higher 
quantity  of  syrup. 

From  seventy  individual  plants  selected  and  tested  for  per- 
centage of  solids  in  1920,  twenty  were  planted  in  head-to- 
the-row  test,  and  selections  made  from  these  rows  were  tested 
in  the  fall  of  1921.  Inasmuch  as  sorghum  is  considerably  cross 
fertilized  in  the  field,  variation  in  the  matter  of  inheritance 
was  to  be  expected,  although  a number  of  selections  produced 
a progeny  which  had  a uniformly  high  percentage  of  solids. 
Further  application  of  this  method  to  various  strains  may 
obtain  not  only  early  maturity  but  a higher  yielding  sorghum 
cane  as  well. 

New  Method  in  Measuring  Sorghum  Syrup 

The  low  price  of  sugar  has  had  a direct  effect  upon  the 
sorghum  industry,  for  the  acreage  of  sorghum  in  Wisconsin  in 
1921  was  approximately  one-third  less  than  in  1920.  During 
recent  years  the  haphazard  method  of  determining  the  amount 
of  syrup  due  each  patron  has  resulted  in  considerable  dissatis- 
faction; and,  in  view  of  this,  a simple  method  was  devised  by 
Mr.  Wright. 

Each  mill  is  equipped  with  two  or  three  juice  vats  instead 
of  one.  These  vats  are  marked  so  that  by  measuring  the  depth 
of  juice  in  inches  the  number  of  gallons  can  be  readily  deter- 
mined, and  each  patron  given  his  proper  credit.  The  juice 
from  each  lot  is  then  tested  with  an  ordinary  Brix  hydrometer 
to  show  the  approximate  percentage  of  solids.  From  this,  1 
to  2 per  cent  is  deducted  to  allow  for  waste  in  handling  the 
juice,  spilling,  and  the  like;  and  the  number  of  gallons  of  juice 
is  then  multiplied  by  the  corrected  percentage  reading,  the 
result  being  the  approximate  number  of  gallons  of  syrup  each 
patron  should  have.  This  method  has  proved  so  satisfactory 
that  a number  of  mills  have  adopted  it  and  in  each  case  have 
been  well  pleased  with  the  results. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


113 


Breeding  to  Prevent  Barley  Stripe  Disease 

Several  years  ago  an  inspection  of  540  fields  of  barley 
showed  an  average  infection  from  barley  stripe  of  5.2  per  cent, 
and  in  some  of  the  fields  40  and  50  per  cent  with  the  crop  yield 
reduced  accordingly.  Working  jointly,  A.  G.  Johnson  (Plant 
Pathology)  and  E.  D.  Holden  (Agronomy)  have  been  experi- 
menting to  obtain  a resistant  strain  of  barley  and  to  eliminate 
from  barley  seed  the  organism  of  barley  stripe  (Helminthos- 
porium  gramineum). 

Seed  for  three  different  plots  was  treated  for  three  hours 
in  formaldehyde  solution  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  of  40 
per  cent  formaldehyde  to  30  gallons  of  water.  Plot  I was 
seeded  April  7,  Plot  II  early  in  May,  and  Plot  III  June  12. 
It  was  anticipated  that  by  planting  at  different  dates  it  would 
be  possible  to  secure  one  plot  which  would  germinate  under 
conditions  favorable  for  the  suppression  of  stripe.  These  bar- 
ley plots  were  segregated  from  other  fields  of  barley  by  from 
30  to  50  rods.  April  7,  1921,  was  an  exceptionally  early  date 
and  was  followed  by  a snow  storm  about  a week  later.  Plot 
II  was,  accordingly,  planted  about  the  optimum  barley  seed- 
ing period,  while  Plot  III  was  planted  very  late  to  see  if  stripe 
infection  would  be  suppressed,  thereby  permitting  the  stripe- 
free  seed  to  be  obtained. 

Contrary  to  the  results  of  previous  seasons,  the  early  plant- 
ing proved  to  be  stripe-free;  the  seed  obtained  from  this  plot 
was  of  fine  quality,  and  throughout  the  entire  season  no  striped 
plants  could  be  found.  The  plot  planted  at  the  regular  plant- 
ing period  was  maturing  during  the  extremely  hot  summer 
and  was  affected  not  only  by  stripe  but  by  rust.  The  late 
planting,  again,  while  it  was  badly  attacked  by  rust,  showed 
no  striped  plants  in  the  plot  throughout  the  season ; and  inas- 
much as  the  disease  winters  over  only  on  the  seed,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  stripe-free  seed  may  have  been  obtained  in  these  two 
plots  and  may  thus  form  the  basis  for  further  experimental 
work  in  1922. 


Breeding  for  Oil  in  Soybeans 

This  year  the  eighth  season’s  crop  of  soybeans  was  har- 
vested and  further  data  gathered  by  Mr.  Lindstrom  about  the 


114 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


possibility  of  increasing  or  decreasing  the  quality  of  oil,  such 
as  can  be  used  for  a drying  agent  in  paint  manufacture. 

In  previous  years  a high  and  a low  line  strain  of  soybeans 
have  been  isolated,  and  the  last  report  from  the  chemist  shows 
that  the  high  line  strain  gives  an  iodine  index  number  of  134, 
indicating  a fairly  high  quality  of  drying  oil,  linseed  oil  being 
approximately  180  on  the  same  basis.  The  low  line  analyzes 
125.  Selection  within  either  the  high  line  or  the  low  line  has, 
however,  failed  to  change  the  quality  of  the  oil.  The  reason 
for  the  original  effect  of  selection  lay  in  the  impurity  of  the 
variety  at  the  time  the  experiment  began.  This  means  that 
once  a pure  line  of  soybeans  has  been  bred,  it  is  useless  to 
continue  selection  for  a higher  quality  of  oil.  To  increase  the 
quality,  it  is  therefore  necessary  either  to  cross  the  different 
varieties  or  to  continually  analyze  new  strains  with  the  hope 
of  isolating  a better  producing  type. 

Is  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  oil  followed  by  a 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  plant  as  we  continue  to 
select?  Five  years  data  on  this  gives  a slight  negative  corre- 
lation, which  shows  that  as  the  quality  is  increased  the  quan- 
tity or  percentage  of  oil  is  very  slightly  decreased,  although 
the  latter  is  of  no  practical  importance. 

More  Wisconsin-Grown  Sweet  Corn 

At  present  the  majority  of  factories  canning  sweet  corn  in 
Wisconsin  obtain  their  seed  from  the  New  England  states. 
Investigation  has  shown  that  the  sources  of  this  seed  and  the 
method  used  in  procuring  it  are  careless  and  inadequate.  In 
some  cases  entire  lots  of  seed  have  given  very  poor  germina- 
tion. Mr.  Holden  and  Mr.  Lindstrom  this  last  year  have 
studied  methods  of  seed  selection  and  seed  curing. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  seed  corn  now  grown  in  Wisconsin 
can  be  improved  considerably,  and  breeding  plots  at  the 
Experiment  Station  for  the  last  three  years  have  produced 
some  seed  of  promising  worth  from  one  of  the  most  widely 
grown  varieties.  One  large  seed  company  has  established  a 
seed  farm  for  producing  sweet  corn  in  this  state ; and,  accord- 
ingly, it  will  soon  be  possible  for  the  factories  to  purchase 
Wisconsin-grown  seed,  thus  insuring  more  uniform  growth 
and  a better  germination  throughout. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


115 


Due  to  the  fact  that  a fall  of  prices  in  the  season  of  1920 
made  it  impossible  to  dispose  of  the  pack  at  prices  even  far 
below  the  cost  of  production,  a large  share  of  the  1920  pack 
was  held  over  into  the  present  season.  A further  consequence 
of  this  was  that  in  some  sections  the  acreage  was  devoted  to 
fancy  and  higher  priced  varieties  rather  than  to  the  larger 
yielding  varieties  previously  grown.  Generally,  however,  the 
outlook  is  improving,  and  the  indications  are  that  next  season’s 
acreage  and  production  will  be  nearly  normal. 

Breeding  Sweet  Corn  for  Canning 

Special  varieties  of  sweet  corn  used  for  canning  purposes 
in  this  state,  such  as  Crosby,  Early  Evergreen,  Stowell’s 
Evergreen,  Hickox,  and  Golden  Bantam  need  improvement  in 
the  uniformity  with  which  they  mature  and  in  quality  and  yield. 
Co-operative  work  done  by  Mr.  Lindstrom  and  Mr.  Holden  has 
shown  much  improvement.  Last  season  two  breeding  plots 
were  grown,  one  containing  fifty  rows,  each  row  coming  from 
a cross  of  different  varieties.  The  other  plot  of  sixty  rows 
came  from  the  inbred  or  self-pollinated  ears  of  the  best  sixty 
plants  comprising  the  commercial  varieties  ordinarily  grown 
in  this  state. 

An  unusually  striking  contrast  was  noted  between  these 
rows,  for  in  the  inbred  plot  considerable  variation  appeared  in 
height  of  plant,  yield,  character  of  growth,  season,  and  in  the 
presence  of  poor,  abnormal  plants.  Although  some  of  the 
rows  of  this  plot  were  uniformly  good,  the  great  majority  were 
poor  in  height  and  yield  and  contained  a wide  variety  of 
abnormal  and  defective  types.  This  is  conclusive  evidence 
that  our  best  commercial  varieties  are  inherently  mixtures  of 
good  and  poor  types  of  corn. 

Experience  has  shown  that  a close  selection  within  such 
varieties  is  very  likely  to  result  eventually  in  ‘Tunning  out.” 
For  this  reason  the  Station  is  attempting  to  eliminate  the 
poor  and  defective  types;  and  the  method  of  close  selection 
or  inbreeding  followed  by  crossing  of  the  best  remaining  types 
is  the  only  hope,  for  the  poor  plants  will  gradually  show  their 
weakness  and  thereby  be  eliminated. 

In  the  cross-bred  plot  of  corn,  the  vigor  and  uniformity  of 
most  of  the  rows  was  notable.  While  the  inbred  rows  of  Early 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Evergreen  averaged  five  and  a half  feet  in  height  and  the 
Crosby  variety  five  feet,  the  Evergreen-Crosby  crosses  aver- 
aged fully  eight  feet  in  height,  were  uniformly  very  early  as 
both  parents  had  been,  the  quality  was  an  intermediate  be- 
tween the  cross-grained  Evergreen  and  the  fine-grained  Cros- 
by, and  the  yield  surpassed  either  parent.  The  Evergreen- 
Hickox  and  Crosby-Hickox  crosses  were  equally  vigorous 
but  were  nearly  a week  later,  due  perhaps  to  the  late  strain  of 
Hickox  used  in  making  the  cross.  While  the  crosses  of  Golden 
Bantam  with  either  Evergreen  or  Crosby  did  not  show  as 
great  vigor  or  yield  as  the  other  crosses,  they  were  excep- 
tionally early.  The  Golden  Bantam  parent  was  used  in  this 
case,  primarily,  to  introduce  quality  into  the  ordinary  white 
sweet  corn  and  thus  to  make  a corn  more  suitable  for  canning. 

The  results  of  this  cross-bred  plot  show  decisively  that 
some  of  our  state-grown  strains  of  sweet  corn  when  crossed 
give  increased  vigor  and  yield.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
Crosby-  Evergreen  (Early  and  Stowells)  and  the  Evergreen- 
Hickox  crosses,  and  thus  opens  up  avenues  for  improvement 
work.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  vigor  and  yield  of 
the  crosses  made  in  this  way  will  hold  up  in  succeeding  years 
— at  least  such  is  the  experience  with  field  corn  when  the 
varieties  are  known  to  be  mixtures  such  as  most  of  them  are. 
Until  we  can  purify  our  commercial  types  by  close  selection 
and  then  cross  them,  we  cannot  hope  to  produce  a first  class 
sweet  corn.  However,  the  first  two  years  work  with  sweet 
corn  indicates  that  good  combinations  may  be  isolated  from 
the  material  at  hand. 

Experiments  Show  Inbreeding  Effects 

A wide  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  effects  of  inbreeding 
have  long  been  held  by  both  scientists  and  practical  breeders. 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  inbreeding  is  an  important  influ- 
ence in  “fixing”  characters,  but  it  is  reputed  to  accentuate  the 
bad  qualities  in  stock  as  well  as  the  good.  Inbreeding  was 
doubtless  an  important  factor  in  the  origin  of  all  the  important 
breeds  of  live  stock.  Many  of  the  early  breeders  bred  from 
the  best  regardless  of  relationship.  But  such  methods  often 
led  to  “over-refinement”  and  to  physiological  deterioration, 
such  as  constitutional  weakness  and  lowered  fecundity.  As  a 


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117 


consequence  most  breeders  today  try  to  follow  some  middle 
course,  breeding  close  enough  to  strengthen  “type”  but  bring- 
ing in  occasional  new  “blood”  to  maintain  vigor  and  fecundity. 
These  methods  are  often  designated  as  forms  of  “line  breed- 
ing.” 

Inbreeding  in  its  broad  sense  means  a reduction  in  the  pos- 
sible number  of  ancestors  which  an  individual  may  have  and 
accordingly  implies  relationship  among  the  ancestors.  Never- 
theless, there  may  be  a high  degree  of  inbreeding  in  the  an- 
cestry of  the  parents  of  an  individual  and  the  parents  them- 
selves be  unrelated.  Such  a mating  would  be  called  an  “out- 
cross”  by  the  breeder.  Thus  there  are  two  things  concerned 
in  the  inbreeding  of  any  individual:  (1)  the  proportion  of  the 
actual  number  of  different  ancestors  to  the  greatest  possible 
number,  and  (2)  the  relationship  of  the  parents.  The  first 
means  the  reduction  in  the  possible  number  of  “blood  lines” 
contributing  to  the  individual,  and  the  second  the  number  of 
“blood  lines”  the  two  parents  possess  in  common. 

The  essential  point  is  that  inbreeding,  especially  with  close 
relationship  of  the  parents,  leads  to  homogeneity,  since  it 
means  intermixtures  of  “bloods”  already  present  and  little  or 
nothing  new  brought  in.  If  two  parents  contain  in  their  germ 
plasm  all  the  factors  necessary  for  vigor,  high  fecundity,  and 
other  desirable  characteristics,  there  is  no  reason  why  their 
offspring  and  later  descendants,  even  with  the  closest  inbreed- 
ing should  not  have  all  these  same  good  traits,  providing  all  the 
offspring  could  have  passed  to  them  the  same  germ  plasm  that 
their  parents  had.  Different  offspring  will  inherit  different  com- 
binations of  the  heritable  potentialities  of  the  parents,  and 
hence  many  will  lack  in  some  qualities.  In  this  way  desir- 
able, or  even  necessary,  constituents  of  the  germ  plasm 
(“blood”)  may  be  lost  out.  Once  lost,  there  is  no  way  to 
recover  them  except  by  bringing  in  new  “blood”  in  which 
they  may  be  present,  that  is,  by  an  outcross.  The  unfor- 
tunate part  is  that  the  outcross  may  bring  in  new  undesirable 
characters  as  well. 

Proper  selection,  then,  appears  to  be  the  key  to  successful 
inbreeding.  Individuals  combining  good  strong  constitutional 
vigor  with  the  desired  characteristics  of  the  breed  in  other 
respects  are  rare,  and  the  breeder  must  often  choose  between 


118 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


an  individual  which  has  desirable  breed  characteristics  but  is 
lacking  in  vigor,  fecundity  or  the  like,  and  some  other  more 
vigorous  animal  which  is  not  as  good  in  breed  points.  If  he 
chooses  the  former,  he  is  apt  to  lose  just  those  subtle  physi- 
ological properties  necessary  for  the  highest  vigor  and  fecun- 
dity. Usually  he  pursues  a middle  course. 

An  experiment  was  started  some  years  ago  at  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  by  L.  J.  Cole  (Genetics)  and  J.  G. 
Halpin  (Poultry  Husbandry)  to  test  this  point.  Breeding 
was  begun  in  1912  with  a pen  of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  In 
each  succeeding  year  brother  was  mated  to  sisters,  selection 
being  based  on  a purely  non-vital  character — tlfat  is,  one 
having  no  probable  relation  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
stock.  This  character  was  the  perfection  of  red  color,  that 
family  of  pullets  being  chosen  each  year  which  showed  the 
deepest  red  color.  As  measured  by  hatchability  of  the  eggs, 
the  vitality  of  the  flock  fell  rapidly  and  in  1916  only  one  egg 
was  hatched  and  this  chick  did  not  live  to  mature. 

A new  beginning  was  now  made,  the  degree  of  inbreeding 
(brother  to  sisters)  being  as  close  as  before,  but  selection  was 
now  based  on  strong  hatchability  and  general  vigor,  color 
being  left  out  of  account  entirely.  With  this  method  there 
has  been  no  evident  deterioriation  in  the  stock  from  1917  to 
1921,  though  much  variability  in  color  is  naturally  resulting. 
Such  experiments,  however,  together  with  present-day  genetic 
understanding,  indicate  that  the  success  or  failure  of  inbreed- 
ing lies  in  the  individuals  selected. 

The  Germ  Cells 

Studies  of  Sex  Control.  Thus  far,  work  with  rabbits  to 
determine,  if  possible,  some  method  of  sex  control  has  produced 
onlf  negative  results.  Extensive  measurements  seemed  to  show 
that  there  was  not  such  a noticeable  difference  in  size  of  sper- 
matozoa in  rabbits  as  has  been  described,  for  example,  in 
cattle  and  swine,  and  therefore  it  is  possible  that  with  other 
animals  some  method  may  yet  be  devised. 

Modifying  the  Germ  Cells.  Different  experiments  have 
been  made  to  determine  how  the  germ  plasm  of  animals  may 
be  modified.  Deficiencies  have  been  reported  resulting  from 
alcoholism,  lead,  and  recently  from  the  use  of  anti-lens  sera. 


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119 


The  effect  of  radium  on  the  germ  glands  is  being  studied,  and 
interesting  results  have  been  obtained  with  a regard  to  pro- 
duction of  sterility,  but  thus  far  no  modifications  of  offspring 
have  been  observed  which  could  be  attributed  to  the  radium 
treatment. 

Inheritance  in  Pigeons.  A rather  unique  series  of  relation- 
ships has  been  brought  out  by  Miss  S.  V.  Jones  in  the  report 
on  the  inheritance  of  checks,  bars,  and  other  modifications  of 
black  in  pigeons.  The  various  stages  of  “bluing,”  the  replacing 
of  black  by  blue  in  the  plumage,  appear  to  depend  on  separate, 


FIG.  35. — CHICK  LIVES  ON  WHOLE  MILK 

This  fowl,  hatched  June  1,  received  no  other  food  than  milk  until 
October  11  when  the  photograph  was  taken. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


definite,  independently  heritable  factors,  whose  expression  is 
such  that  each  one  higher  in  the  series  (producing  more  black) 
covers  the  effect  of  all  those  below. 

“White  Ration”  Helped  by  Dried  Pork  Liver 

White  corn,  which  is  destitute  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine, 
must  be  supplemented  by  some  such  addition  as  dried  pork 
liver,  wherein  the  vitamine  occurs  in  abundance  if  the  ration 
is  to  be  complete.  The  influence  of  this  addition  has  been 
studied  on  the  egg  production  of  five  lots,  ten  each,  of  June 
hatched  pullets  by  Mr.  Halpin  and  H.  Steenbock  (Agricultural 
Chemistry).  Although  the  first  month  with  white  corn  and 
casein  alone  showed  an  egg  production  of  108,  the  white  corn, 
casein,  and  pork  liver  showed  a production  of  117,  dropping  in 
June  for  the  former  to  19  eggs  and  in  the  latter  to  107,  with  a 
loss  of  chickens  in  the  first  lot  of  80  per  cent  and  in  the  second 
lot  of  10  per  cent. 

White  corn  and  clear  skimmilk  powder  gave  results  almost 
identical  with  those  obtained  when  feeding  white  corn  and 
casein,  although  an  increase  in  egg  production  was  noticed 
the  second  month  and  the  number  of  eggs  laid  in  June  was 
only  three,  while  80  per  cent  of  the  fowls  died.  White  corn, 
skimmilk  powder,  and  pork  liver,  however,  started  the  second 
flock  at  54  eggs  in  January  and  increased  the  same  as  white 
corn,  casein,  and  pork  liver  with  a loss  of  only  10  per  cent  of 
the  fowls.  Cod  liver  oil  is  known  to  be  very  rich  in  fat-soluble 
vitamine  and  to  have  a stimulating  effect  under  varying  cir- 
cumstances as  a feed.  This  was  shown  in  the  ration  of  white 
corn,  casein,  and  codliver  oil ; the  flock  began  with  63  eggs 
in  January,  increased  production  in  April  to  83  and  decreased 
again  in  June  to  35,  with  a loss  in  the  pen  of  20  per  cent  due 
to  death. 

Lime  Supply  Influences  Egg  Production.  Coarse  oyster 
shell  again  proved  the  most  satisfactory,  fine  oyster  shell  next, 
and  dry  bone  third  in  experiments  conducted  by  J.  G.  Halpin 
and  E.  B.  Hart.  While  it  is  still  impossible  to  explain  why 
oyster  shell  gives  better  results  than  any  other  single  source 
of  lime  material,  it  was  shown  that  the  addition  of  green  stuff 
to  the  ration  gives  a much  better  result. 


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121 


Use  Milk  for  Starting  Baby  Chicks 

A number  of  people  have  reported  excellent  results  when 
the  chicks  are  given  whole  milk  to  drink  during  their  first 
days  in  the  brooder,  the  whole  milk  being  supplemented  by 
other  feed  as  shown  in  recent  reports.  However,  when  the 
chicks  are  a week  or  ten  days  old,  they  are  gradually  changed 
to  skimmilk,  but  whole  milk  seems  to  be  a very  practical  sup- 
plement to  the  chick’s  diet  during  the  most  critical  time  of  its 
life — the  first  few  days.  Work  has  been  continued  along  this 
line  by  Mr.  Halpin  and  E.  B.  Hart  (Agricultural  Chemistry). 
A chick  was  never  given  anything  but  whole  milk  to  drink  from 
about  June  1 to  October  11.  Although  whole  milk  does  not  give 
normal  growth  due  to  the  lack  of  other  needed  substances,  this 
is  conclusive  evidence,  however,  of  the  importance  of  using  milk 
in  starting  baby  chicks. 

Do  Swine  Need  Roughage? 

It  is  well  known  that  not  infrequently,  especially  in  the 
winter,  growing  pigs  get  stiff  and  crippled  and  brood  sows 
break  down  after  farrowing,  when  giving  a large  flow  of  milk. 
These  conditions  bear  some  similarity  to  rickets,  a disease  of 
the  bones  which  affects  humans.  E.  B.  Hart  and  H.  Steen- 
bock  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  have  been  endeavoring  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  such  conditions. 

Among  other  factors  studied  they  have  carried  on  experi- 
ments to  find  whether  the  lack  of  roughage  or  bulky  feed 
causes  the  troubles.  Rations  were  made  from  corn  and  oil 
meal,  to  which  was  added  1 per  cent  of  common  salt  and  2 
per  cent  of  floats  (ground  rock  phosphate)  in  order  to  furnish 
the  needed  mineral  constituents.  One  group  was  left  as  a 
check  receiving  only  this  ration,  while  another  group  received 
10  per  cent  of  finely  ground  paper,  another  group  10  per  rent 
of  charcoal,  and  another  group  10  per  cent  of  ordinary  dirt. 
These  animals  have  now  been  under  observation  for  a year. 

Those  on  the  first  ration  without  any  roughage  developed 
trouble  at  the  end  of  6 to  8 months,  manifested  by  stiffness 
in  the  joints  and  such  difficulty  in  getting  on  their  feet  that 
they  crawled  about  on  their  knees.  However,  the  lot  receiv- 
ing paper  also  developed  this  condition,  indicating,  apparently, 


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that  the  roughage  factor  was  not  the  cause.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  receiving  charcoal  did  not  show  this  condition 
of  swollen  joints  and  stiffness,  and  those  receiving  dirt  mani- 
fested this  condition  to  only  a slight  extent. 


FIG.  36.— POOR  FEED  CAUSES  BREAKDOWN 

A.  This  sow  broke  down  at  farrowing  time  on  a ration  of  yellow 
corn,  floats,  and  common  salt. 

B.  Same  animal  continued  on  the  ration  used  previously  with  20 
c.  c.  cod-liver  oil.  Locomotion  completely  regained 


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123 


. As  these  results  began  to  suggest  a rachitic  condition  as 
the  cause  of  the  stiffness,  the  animals  were  given  a daily  dose 
of  cod  liver  oil.  The  recovery  was  rapid  and  marked.  One 
animal  that  was  becoming  very  stiff  and  losing  weight  at  a 
weight  of  250  pounds,  immediately  began  to  grow  at  a normal 
rate  and  finally  the  stiffness  and  swollen  joints  disappeared. 

One  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  only  skimmilk  for  over  a year,  with 
no  roughage  whatsoever.  Though  they  did  not  grow  at  a 
normal  rate,  no  doubt  due  to  the  low  supply  of  fat-soluble 
vitamine  in  skimmilk,  no  stiffness  developed.  This  indicates 
that  roughage  itself  may  not  be  necessary  for  health  of  swine, 
if  the  ration  contains  all  the  necessary  nutrients  and  vita 
mines. 

Stability  of  the  Anti-scorbutic  Vitamine 

•The  anti-scorbutic  vitamine  is  much  less  stable  than  the 
fat  soluble  vitamine.  In  the  spray  process  of  manufacturing 
powdered  milk  more  of  the  anti-scorbutic  vitamine  is  de- 
stroyed than  in  the  Just  process  (roller  process).  The  results 
should  not  condemn  milk  powders  made  by  the  spray  pro- 
cess, but  they  show  their  limitations  when  used  as  a sole 
source  of  the  milk  supply  in  infant  feeding. 

How  the  anti-scorbutic  vitamine  is  destroyed  remains  ob- 
scure. It  is  absent  in  silage,  but  whether  it  is  destroyed  by 
the  long  continued  heat  or  by  the  fermentations  is  still  un- 
known. Roots  and  other  vegetables  stored  during  the  winter 
appear  to  be  less  potent  in  their  anti-scorbutic  activity  in  the 
Spring  than  when  they  were  fresh  in  the  fall.  Continued  ex- 
periments by  Samuel  Lepovsky  (Agricultural  Chemistry) 
have  shown  that  certain  types  of  fermentation  appear  to  de- 
stroy this  vitamine  while  other  types  do  not.  Auto-oxidation 
is  perhaps  a very  active  cause.  Mr.  Lepovsky  has  also  con- 
tinued his  work  on  the  solubility  of  this  vitamine  in  order  to 
know  more  of  its  nature.  He  has  learned  that  it  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  water. 

The  possible  relation  of  this  vitamine  to  maintenance  of  the 
best  condition  in  farm  animals  has  lead  to  the  study  of  its 
distribution  in  farm  feeds.  While  it  is  recognized  that  it  is 
low  or  absent  in  dried  materials  yet  there  has  been  little 
knowledge  of  the  amount  in  the  various  roots  and  in  green 
material. 


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It  has  been  found  that  1 gram  a day  of  green  forage  from 
oats,  alfalfa,  corn,  or  timothy  will  provide  enough  of  this 
vitamine  to  protect  a guinea  pig  from  scurvy,  while  it  takes 
one  and  a half  grams  of  cabbage  or  three  grams  of  rutabaga 
or  turnip.  Potatoes  are  much  lower  in  the  vitamine,  5 to 
10  grams  being  needed.  Ten  grams  of  yellow  carrots  are 
required  and  20  to  30  grams  of  sugar  beets,  sugar  mangels,  or 
table  beets. 

Importance  of  Plenty  of  Lime  for  Stock 

The  disastrous  effects  of  a lack  of  lime  in  the  rations  for 
breeding  cows,  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  long  con- 
tinued experiments  by  Messrs.  Hart  and  Steenbock,  have  been 
previously  reported.  In  these  trials  when  cows  have  been 
fed  wheat  or  oat  straw  which  are  low  in  lime,  as  the  only 
roughages  throughout  pregnancy  they  have  aborted  or  have 
produced  dead  or  weak  offspring.  When  such  roughage  as 
legume  hay,  which  is  high  in  lime,  has  been  fed,  the  calves 
were  normal.  During  the  past  year,  cows  have  been  fed 
roughages  low  in  lime  during  various  periods  of  pregnancy. 


FIG.  37.— CALCIUM-RICH  ROUGHAGE  NEEDED 
This  cow  received  a high  calcium  roughage  (clover  hay)  for  the 
first  five  months  of  gestation  and  a low  calcium  roughage  (oat  straw), 
for  the  last  four  months  of  gestation.  The  result  was  a dead  calf. 


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125 


to  find  how  long  such  rations  could  be  fed  without  injurious 
effects.  From  the  limited  number  of  trials  which  have  thus 
far  been  carried  on  it  appears  that  a forage  low  in  lime,  such 
as  straw,  could  be  safely  used  as  the  only  roughage  for  a part 
of  the  gestation  period,  but  not  during  the  last  three  to  four 
months  when  the  most  growth  occurs  in  the  fetus. 

The  experiments  previously  mentioned  are  being  continued 
to  find  whether  hay  grown  on  very  acid  soil  produces  poor 
results  with  breeding  stock,  due  to  a low  lime  content. 
Analyses  of  timothy  hay  and  corn  stover  grown  on  various 
soils  show  that  the  lime  content  of  the  forage  varies  widely 
depending  on  the  amount  of  lime  in  the  soil.  For  instance 
timothy  hay  from  an  acid  marsh  contained  only  0.41  per  cent 
calcium  oxide  (lime)  and  corn  stover  from  acid  soils  only 
0.33  to. 0.49  per  cent  calcium  oxide.  Such  hay  or  stover,  sup- 
plied as  the  only  roughage,  along  with  farm  grain,  would 
make  a ration  so  low  in  lime  that  in  all  probability  it  would 
produce  bad  results  if  fed  to  cows  through  pregnancy.  On 
account  of  some  popular  prejudice  against  barley,  in  these 
trials  there  has  also  been  studied  the  effect  of  using  barley  as 
the  only  grain  for  breeding  cattle.  However,  entirely  satis- 
factory results  were  secured  when  barley  was  fed  as  the  only 
grain  with  corn  stover  fairly  high  in  lime. 


Yellow  Versus  White  Corn  for  Stock  Feeding 

Experiments  have  been  continued  by  Messrs.  Morrison, 
Fargo,  and  Bohstedt  to  determine  the  relation  to  swine  feed- 
ing of  the  fact  that  yellow  corn  is  rich  in  fat-soluble  vitamine. 
while  white  corn  contains  but  little.  Four  separate  trials 
have  now  been  concluded  in  this  investigation.  These  trials 
show  clearly  that  yellow  corn  produces  decidedly  larger  and 
more  economical  gains  than  white  corn  when  fed  to  pigs  not 
on  pasture,  with  such  supplements  as  skimmilk,  whey,  or 
linseed  meal,  none  of  which  are  high  in  the  fat-soluble  vita- 
mine.  For  pigs  on  excellent  pasture  there  has  been  no  differ- 
ence between  the  value  of  yellow  and  white  corn,  due  to  the 
fact  that  green  plants  are  rich  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine. 
However,  in  the  fall,  when  the  pasture  became  scant,  the  pigs 
on  white  corn  soon  began  to  fall  behind  those  receiving  the 


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yellow  corn.  Later  when  the  two  lots  were  taken  off  pasture, 
those  fed  yellow  corn  far  out-stripped  the  less  fortunate  lot. 
Even  when  fed  with  tankage  or  meat  meal,  which  may  con- 
tain some  fat-soluble  vitamine,  yellow  corn  has  usually  been 
decidedly  better  than  the  white  corn. 


FIG.  38.— RESULT  OF  FEEDING  CALCIUM-RICH  ROUGHAGE 

This  cow  received  a calcium-rich  ration  (clover  hay)  for  7 months 
of  the  gestation  period  and  a calcium-low  roughage  (oat  straw)  for  the 
last  two  months  of  gestation.  The  result  was  a successful  reproduction. 
(Compare  with  figure  37.) 

In  a trial  which  has  just  been  concluded,  very  striking  re- 
sults have  been  secured  in  the  comparison  of  white  and  yel- 
low corn  when  fed  with  various  common  protein-rich  supple- 
ments. In  this  experiment,  which  began  July  20,  uniform  lots 
each  of  8 pigs,  averaging  60  pounds  in  weight  at  the  start, 
were  fed  for  126  days.  One  lot  was  self-fed  a mixture  of  yel 
low  corn  and  tankage,  while  another  lot  was  self-fed  a mix- 
ture of  white  corn  with  the  same  proportion  of  tankage.  The 
pigs  on  the  yellow  corn  and  tankage  made  satisfactory  gains, 
averaging  1.06  pounds  per  head  daily.  They  were  purchased 
feeder  pigs  and  were  not  of  the  best  breeding  or  conformation 
or  their  gains  would  have  been  larger.  The  pigs  fed  white 
corn  and  tankage  gained  only  0.6^pound  per  head  daily. 


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127 


While  the  pigs  fed  yellow  corn  and  tankage  required  but  447 
of  corn  and  tankage  for  each  100  pounds  gain,  those  fed  the 
white  corn  and  tankage  required  554  pounds  of  feed. 

Even  more  striking  results  were  secured  where  yellow  corn 
was  compared  with  white  corn,  with  skimmilk  as  the  supple- 
ment. The  pigs  fed  yellow  corn  and  skimmilk  were  thrifty 
and  made  the  satisfactory  gain  of  1.0  pound  per  head  daily, 
requiring  422  pounds  of  corn  and  628  pounds  of  skimmilk  for 


A — Two  poorest  pigs 
on  white  corn  and 
tankage. 

B — Two  poorest  pigs 
on  yellow  corn  and 
tankage. 

C — Dry  lot.  Fed  yel- 
low corn  and  tank- 
age. 

D — Dry  lot.  Fed 
white  corn  and  tank- 
age. 


FIG.  39.— YELLOW’  CORN  BETTER  PORK-MAKER  THAN  WHITE  CORN 


each  100  pounds  gain.  At  first  the  pigs  on  white  corn  and 
skimmilk  did  practically  as  good  as  those  fed  the  yellow  corn 
and  skimmilk.  but  finally  the  lack  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine 
in  their  ration  produced  serious  results,  and  finally  all  but 
three  of  the  pigs  died.  The  common  cause  of  death  seemed 


128 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


to  be  pneumonia,  which  agrees  with  the  results  secured  by 
Mr.  Steenbock  in  his  experiments  with  rats  in  which  he  has 
found  that  a deficiency  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  often  produces 
death  from  respiratory  troubles,  especially  pneumonia. 

Even  the  pigs  which  were  so  vigorous  that  they  were  able 
to  live  on  the  white  corn  and  skimmilk  ration  throughout  the 
experiment  made  unsatisfactory  gains  and  required  consider- 
ably more  feed  for  100  pounds  gain  than  the  entire  lot  fed 
yellow  corn  and  skimmilk. 

Another  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  yellow  corn  and  linseed  meal 
along  with  skimmed  whey,  while  a sixth  lot  was  fed  white 
corn  with  linseed  meal  and  whey.  In  this  comparison  the 
yellow  corn  again  proved  decidedly  superior,  but  none  of  the 
pigs  fed  the  white  corn,  linseed  meal,  and  whey  died  during 
the  experiment,  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  linseed  meal, 
though  not  rich  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamines,  contains  more  of 
it  than  does  white  corn. 

The  lesson  of  these  trials  is  obvious.  If  yellow  corn  is 
available,  do  not  use  white  corn  for  feeding  pigs  in  the  winter 
in  dry  lot.  Save  the  white  corn  for  feeding  in  summer  on 
pasture  or  use  it  for  feeding  other  stock.  If  white  corn  must 
be  fed  to  pigs  in  winter,  see  that  they  get  some  choice  bright 
green  alfalfa  hay  or  hay  from  other  legumes.  Young  pigs 
cannot  make  good  use  of  much  hay,  even  if  it  is  of  the  best 
quality,  so  they  may  not  make  quite  as  good  gains  as  if'  they 
had  been  fed  yellow  corn,  even  though  they  are  supplied  with 
legume  hay.  Yellow  stock  carrots,  which  are  rich  in  the  fat- 
soluble  vitamine,  have  been  found  to  be  excellent  to  feed  with 
white  corn  to  pigs,  but  carrots  are  rather  an  expensive  feed 
in  most  parts  of  the  country. 

Yellow  Versus  White  Corn  for  Other  Stock.  So  far  as  is 

now  known,  white  corn  is  as  good  as  yellow  for  horses,  dairy 
cattle,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep,  if  they  are  fed  ordinary  well 
balanced  rations,  including  plenty  of  good,  green-colored  hay. 
In  an  experiment  carried  on  this  summer  by  Messrs.  Mor- 
rison, Hulce,  and  Humphrey  it  was  found  that  even  for  calves 
fed  whey,  which  is  low  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine,  white  corn 
appeared  to  give  as  good  results  as  yellow  corn,  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  calves  begin  to  eat  hay  when  only  two  to  three 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


129 


weeks  old,  and  good  quality  legume  hay  was  supplied  in  this 
trial.  Whether  there  is  any  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of 
silage  from  yellow  and  white  corn  is  a matter  for  future  ex- 
periments to  decide.  At  least  excellent  results  are  secured 
from  silage  made  from  white  corn  when  fed  to  cattle  and 
sheep.  Preliminary  experiments  by  the  Poultry  Husbandry 
Department  indicate  that  yellow  corn  is  apparently  superior 
to  white  for  chickens  which  do  not  receive  in  summer  plenty 
of  fresh,  green  feed,  or  in  winter  an  abundance  of  clover  or 
alfalfa  chaff,  sprouted  oats,  or  similar  green  stuff. 

Home-Grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 

Purchased  protein-rich  concentrates  are  commonly  high  in 
price  compared  with  farm  grains;  consequently  there  is  much 
interest  among  dairymen  on  the  question  as  to  whether  they 
can  provide  for  their  herds  satisfactory  home-grown  rations, 
thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  buying  expensive  concentrates. 
In  metabolism  trials  previously  reported  which  have  been  car- 
ried on  by  the  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Animal  Husbandry 
departments,  it  was  found  that  cows  would  keep  up  quite  a 
large  flow  of  milk  without  losing  nitrogen  from  their  bodies 
if  fed  an  abundance  of  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  and  corn.  Sim- 
ilar results  were  secured  when  barley  or  oats  were  fed  as  the 
grain,  the  amount  of  each  grain  being  adjusted  so  as  to  provide 
equal  amounts  of  protein,  and  starch  being  added  to  the  barley 
and  oats  rations  to  compensate  for  the  fact  that  these  grains 
are  lower  in  net  energy  than  corn.  When  clover  hay,  which 
is  much  lower  than  alfalfa  in  protein,  was  fed  in  place  of  alfalfa 
hay,  high  producing  cows  lost  nitrogen  steadily. 

During  the  past  year  similar  metabolism  trials  were  car- 
ried on  with  alfalfa  hay,  but  the  rations  were  limited  merely 
to  the  hay,  corn  silage,  and  corn  grain,  barley,  or  oats,  without 
the  addition  of  any  starch.  When  barley  or  oats  replaced 
corn,  amounts  supplying  equal  quantities  of  protein  were  fed. 
With  corn  or  barley  as  the  grain  a normal  flow  of  milk  was 
maintained  and  the  cows  did  not  lose  nitrogen  from  their 
bodies.  However,  with  oats  as  the  grain,  the  cows  lost  nitro- 
gen, not  due  to  a lack  of  protein  in  the  feed,  but  due  to  the  fact 
that  oats  are  much  lower  in  net  energy  than  corn  or  barley. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


130 

A trial  was  also  carried  on  by  Messrs.  Morrison,  Hulce,  and 
Humphrey  to  study  the  effect  in  practical  herd  feeding  of  a 
home-grown  ration  in  which  the  protein  was  chiefly  supplied 
by  alfalfa  hay.  One  lot  of  5 cows  was  fed  for  147  days  on  a 
ration  of  10.0  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  32.6  pounds  corn  silage,  and 
7.2  pounds  of  a mixture  of  half  ground  corn  and  half  ground 
oats.  This  home-grown  ration  had  a nutritive  ratio  of  1:7.1, 
thus  providing  as  much  protein  as  recommended  in  the 
Haecker  feeding  standards. 

A similar  lot  of  cows  was  fed  the  same  ration  except  three- 
fourths  pound  each  of  linseed  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  were 
substituted  for  an  equal  weight  of  corn  and  oats,  thus  pro- 
viding more  protein.  This  ration  had  a nutritive  ratio  of 
1 :5.9. 

In  this  trial  the  ration  including  the  linseed  and  cottonseed 
meal  did  not  prove  superior  to  the  excellent  home-grown 
ration.  In  fact,  probably  because  of  the  remarkably  persistent 
high  production  of  or.e  cow,  more  milk  and  butter  fat  was  pro- 
duced on  the  latter  ration.  However,  the  cows  on  this  ration  did 
not  make  quite  as  much  gain  in  live  weight  during  the  trial  as  on 
the  ration  richer  in  protein.  Later,  trouble  has  been  experienced 
in  getting  in  calf  the  cow  previously  mentioned,  which  gave 
an  unusually  high  production  on  the  home-grown  ration. 
Whether  or  not  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  her  ration  was  not 
very  high  in  protein,  is  still  a question.  Trials  are  being  con- 
tinued to  study  further  the  efficiency  of  such  home-grown 
rations.  The  data  thus  far  secured  show  that  cows  of  fairly 
high  production  will  maintain  normal  production  for  the  win- 
ter period  on  a home-grown  ration,  including  an  abundance 
of  alfalfa  hay.  However,  for  year  round  feeding  of  very  high- 
producing  cows  it  would  appear  wise  to  feed  a somewhat 
higher  allowance  of  protein  than  such  a ration  will  furnish. 

Studies  of  Vitamines 

In  determining  the  exact  importance  of  the  different  vita- 
mines  in  human  nutrition  and  in  stock  feeding  it  is  essential 
that  the  approximate  amount  of  each  vitamine  in  different 
common  food  stuffs  be  determined.  Mr.  Steenbock,  Miss 
Mariana  Sell,  and  Elmer  Nelson  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  have 
therefore  carried  on  trials  with  small  laboratory  animals 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


131 


(rats)  to  study  the  distribution  of  the  vitamines,  especially 
the  fat-soluble  vitamine,  in  milk  and  milk  products,  and  also 
in  various  plant  materials. 

Fat-soluble  Vitamine  in  Milk.  Whole  milk  has  been  found 
to  be  very  rich  in  its  content  of  fat-soluble  vitamine  com- 
pared with  the  amount  of  water-soluble  vitamine  it  contains. 
Two  cubic  centimeters  a day  of  whole  milk  was  sufficient  to 
produce  normal  growth  in  rats  fed  white  corn,  which  contains 
practically  none  of  this  vitamine.  In  comparison  with  this  it 
takes  16  cubic  centimeters  of  milk  a day  to  provide  enough 
water-soluble  vitamine  for  a rat  to  grow  normally. 

While  whole  milk  is  rich  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine,  the 
amount  of  this  vitamine  in  centrifugal  skimmilk  is  only  one- 
tenth  or  less  than  in  whole  milk.  This  fact  is  of  much  im- 
portance in  swine  and  poultry  feeding.  Furthermore  it  has  a 
profound  bearing  on  human  nutrition,  especially  in  the  use  of 
“filled  milk,”  which  is  evaporated  skimmilk  to  which  cocoanut 
oil  has  been  added,  as  a substitute  for  whole  milk.  “Filled 
milk”  has  been  found  to  be  so  deficient  in  fat-soluble  vitamine 
that  it  will  not  sustain  normal  growth  in  rats,  even  when  lib- 
eral amounts  are  supplied. 

It  has  been  reported  that  in  previous  trials  the  content  of 
anti-scorbutic  vitamine  in  milk  was  found  to  be  much  lower 
ordinarily  in  winter  than  in  summer  when  the  cows  were  on 
pasture.  Though  cows  fed  good  hay  in  winter  secure  amounts 
of  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  these  feeds,  it  was  found  that  on 
ordinary  rations  milk  was  considerably  lower  in  this  vitamine 
than  under  pasture  conditions. 

Fat-Soluble  Vitamine 

Stability  of  the  Fat-Soluble  Vitamine.  The  fat-soluble  vita- 
mine is  not  of  an  extremely  unstable  nature,  for  it  can  be 
boiled  with  acids  and  alkalies  of  a few  per  cent  concentration. 
It  can  be  treated  with  hydrogen  or  oxygen  in  acid  or  alkaline 
solution  with  little  or  no  destruction,  yet  the  data  seem  to 
indicate  that  under  certain  conditions  oxygen  destroys  it  quite 
readily,  as  is  apparently  the  case  in  milk  powders  made  by 
the  spray  process.  Furthermore,  it  is  destroyed  to  some  ex- 
tent by  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  This  would  indicate  that  hav 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


exposed  too  long  in  the  swath  to  the  direct  sunlight  would  be 
lower  in  its  content  of  the  vitamine  than  hay  cured  in  the 
windrow  or  cocks. 

Yellow  Coloring  Related  to  Fat-Soluble  Vitamine.  The 

discovery  that  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  occurred  in  yellow 
corn  while  it  did  not  occur  in  white  corn  has  now  led  to  fur- 
ther experiments.  In  the  yellow  corn  kernel  itself,  this  vita- 
mine has  been  found  especially  abundant  in  the  endosperm 
where  the  bulk  of  the  pigment  is  present.  The  germ  contains 
little  of  it,  in  correspondence  with  the  low  pigment  content, 
and  out  of  harmony  with  its  high  content  of  fat,  with  which 
this  vitamine  is  so  often  associated.  It  has  been  previously 
found  that  light  colored  butter  fat  tends  to  be  lower  in  fat- 
soluble  vitamine  content  than  deeper  colored  butter  fat.  In 
like  manner  it  has  been  found  that  light  colored  beef  fats  are 
usually  poorer  in  the  vitamine  than  the  higher  colored  beef 
fats.  A similar  situation  has  been  found  in  the  case  of  egg 
yolks  produced  under  ordinary  feeding  conditions.  Those 
richest  in  yellow  color  are  richest  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine. 
However,  it  is  possible  to  produce  a light  colored  yolk  very 
rich  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  by  the  use  of  pork  liver  or  cod 
liver  oil,  both  of  which  are  poor  in  the  yellow  pigment  but 
rich  in  the  vitamine. 

Hydrolyzed  Sawdust  for  Dairy  Cows 

It  was  reported  last  year  that  in  a feeding  trial  by  Messrs. 
Morrison,  Humphrey,  and  Hulce,  hydrolyzed  sawdust  prepared 
by  treating  sawdust  with  a diluted  acid  under  pressure,  was 
successfully  used  as  part  of  the  concentrate  mixture  for  dairy 
cows.  In  this  trial  two  pounds  of  sawdust  approximately 
replaced  one  pound  of  barley.  While  at  the  present  prices  of 
farm  grains  throughout  the  corn  belt  there  is  no  probability 
that  hydrolyzed  sawdust  will  be  of  any  importance  as  a live- 
stock feed,  this  past  year  another  trial  was  conducted  to  obtain 
further  information  concerning  the  value  of  hydrolyzed  saw- 
dust. Inasmuch  as  in  certain  districts  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially in  the  far  West,  carbohydrate-rich  feeds  are  commonly 
high  in  price  the  conversion  of  sawdust  into  a stock  food  may 
perhaps  be  of  economic  importance. 


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133 


In  this  trial  two  lots  each  of  three  cows  were  fed  for  seventy 
days.  One  lot  received  an  excellent  ration  consisting  of  al- 
falfa hay,  corn  silage,  and  a concentrate  mixture  made  up  of 
60  parts  yellow  corn,  20  parts  wheat  bran,  and  20  parts  lin- 
seed meal.  The  ration  for  the  other  lot  was  the  same  except 
that  hydrolyzed  sawdust  made  from  western  white  pine  was 
gradually  substituted  for  ground  corn  at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  of  the  sawdust  for  one  pound  of  corn.  When  the  per- 
centage of  sawdust  in  the  concentrate  mixture  had  reached  40 
per  cent,  two  cows  failed  to  eat  the  mixture  well  and  the  pro- 
portion of  hydrolyzed  sawdust  was  reduced  to  one-third  and 
no  difficulty  was  experienced  throughout  the  trial  in  getting 
the  cows  to  eat  this  mixture.  In  the  previous  trial  the  cows 
were  fed  by  the  reversal  method,  remaining  on  the  hydro- 
lyzed sawdust  for  only  a brief  time ; but  in  this  trial,  however, 
they  were  maintained  on  the  sawdust  throughout  the  entire 
period.  The  cows  remained  in  good  condition  throughout, 
the  only  effect  of  the  hydrolyzed  sawdust  apparently  being 
a slight  constipating  tendency.  And  while  the  milk  and  fat 
production  on  the  two  rations  was  practically  the  same,  the 
cows  maintained  their  live  weight  slightly  better  on  the  ration 
containing  the  hydrolyzed  sawdust.  The  data,  therefore,  sub- 
stantiate those  secured)  in  the  previous  trial,  indicating  that 
hydrolyzed  sawdust  may  be  substituted  for  corn  or  barley  in 
the  concentrate  mixture  for  high-producing  dairy  cows  with- 
out affecting  the  normal  milk  flow,  and  that  the  hydrolyzed 
sawdust  may  form  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  concentrate 
mixture. 

As  these  trials  have  shown  that  hydrolyzed  sawdust  may 
be  used  successfully  under  proper  conditions  for  feeding  dairy 
cattle  when  economic  conditions  warrant  it,  the  trials  will  not 
be  continued  further  at  the  present  time,  but  it  is  of  interest 
to  note  that  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
taken  up  experimental  work  on  this  subject  and  also  one  of 
the  eastern  experiment  stations  is  beginning  a study  of  the 
question. 


Economical  Rations  for  Dairy  Calves 

Where  there  is  an  abundance  of  skimmilk  for  calf  feeding, 
the  raising  of  vigorous  dairy  calves  is  relatively  simple,  but 
on  an  increasing  number  of  Wisconsin  farms  there  is  none 


134 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


now  available.  Over  large  sections  the  milk  is  sold  to  con- 
denseries  or  shipped  to  city  markets.  In  cheese  producing 
districts  plenty  of  whey  is  available  for  calf  feeding,  but  such 
poor  results  have  commonly  been  secured  with  this  dairy  by- 
product that  many  farmers  make  no  attempt  to  use  it  for  this 
purpose. 

To  study  the  most  economical  methods  of  raising  dairy  calves 
on  farms  where  plenty  of  skimmilk  is  not  available,  calf  feeding 
trials  have  been  carried  on  the  past  year  by  Messrs.  Morrison. 
Hulce,  and  Humphrey.  As  a check  lot,  one  lot  of  calves  was 
fed  a liberal  allowance  of  skimmilk  (14  pounds  a head  daily) 
with  a suitable  concentrate  mixture  and  legume  hay.  This 
lot  made  the  excellent  average  daily  gain  of  1.68  pounds  for 
24  weeks.  Another  lot,  fed  only  10  pounds  of  skimmilk  a 
day,  with  slightly  more  concentrates,  gained  1.49  pounds  per 
head  daily,  a satisfactory  gain,  though  slightly  below  the  first 
lot. 

A third  lot  was  fed  no  skimmilk.  but  was  raised  on  a mini- 
mum amount  of  whole  milk,  which  amounted  to  only  350  to 
400  pounds  for  each  calf.  This  was  supplemented  by  a simple 
concentrate  mixture,  rich  in  protein,  consisting  of  equal  parts 
oats,  corn,  linseed  meal  and  wheat  bran.  After  the  first  two 
months,  the  calves  were  fed  only  this  mixfure  with  hay  and 
water,  no  expensive  calf  meal  being  fed.  This  lot  also  made 
the  satisfactory  gain  of  1.44  pounds  a head  daily. 

Surprisingly  good  results  were  secured  with  lots  fed  whey, 
supplemented  by  a concentrate  rich  in  protein,  consisting  of 
corn  30  pounds,  standard  middlings  30  pounds,  and  linseed 
meal  40  pounds.  The  whey  was  skimmed  whey  and  no  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  variations  in  sourness  after  the  calves  were 
used  to  this  feed.  Lots  thus  fed  whey  gained  on  the  average 
1.48  pounds  per  head  daily,  this  satisfactory  gain  being  due 
in  all  probability  to  the  fact  that  the  whey  was  never  allowed 
to  stand  in  a filthy  tank  or  can  and  was  fed  under  sanitary 
conditions  by  a careful  herdsman.  Before  definite  conclu- 
sions are  drawn  concerning  the  value  of  these  and  other  ra- 
tions for  calf  raising,  the  studies  will  be  carried  further  in 
future  trials. 


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135 


Relationship  of  Vita  mines  to  Use  of  Lime 

The  theory  that  some  vitamine  controls  or  affects  the  ability 
of  animals  to  assimilate  and  use  the  lime  in  their  feed,  which 
was  advanced  recently  by  Messrs.  Hart  and  Steenbock  (Agri- 
cultural Chemistry),  has  been  confirmed  by  experiments  car- 
ried on  the  past  year.  In  metabolism  experiments  with  high- 
producing  dairy  cows,  they  have  shown  a greater  ability  to 
assimilate  the  lime  (calcium)  from  fresh  green  alfalfa  than 
from  alfalfa  hay,  supporting  previous  observations  that  fresh 
green  forages  apparently  contain  some  vitamine  or  other  sub- 
stance which  increases  the  assimilation  of  lime  from  the  feed. 

In  metabolism  trials  by  Messrs.  Hart,  Steenbock,  and  Hop- 
pert  milk  goats  have  been  easily  brought  into  negative  lime 
balance  on  a ration  of  grains  and  oat  straw  so  that  they  were 
losing  this  mineral  from  their  bodies.  To  such  a ration  vari- 
ous additions  were  made  in  an  effort  to  determine  whether 
lime  assimilation  from  the  feed  was  influenced  by  any  of  the 
three  vitamines  thus  far  positively  identified : i.  e.,  the  fat- 
soluble  vitamine,  the  water-soluble  vitamine,  and  the  anti- 
scorbutic vitamine.  The  results  secured  up  to  the  present 
time  indicate  that  neither  the  water-soluble  vitamine  or  the 
anti-scorbutic  vitamine  affect  the  assimilation  of  lime.  When 
cod  liver  oil,  which  is  exceedingly  rich  in  the  fat-soluble  vita- 
mine, was  added  to  the  ration,  even  in  small  amounts,  the  ani- 
mals were  able  to  use  more  of  the  lime  in  the  ration.  How- 
ever, in  one  trial  with  butter-fat,  which  is  also  rich  in  fat- 
soluble  vitamine,  no  such  response  followed.  Therefore,  it  is 
yet  undecided  whether  it  is  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  cod 
liver  oil  and  in  fresh  green  forages  which  increases  the  assim- 
ilation of  lime,  or  whether  it  is  some  entirely  different  vita- 
mine or  other  substance. 

Dogs  have  also  been  used  in  similar  studies  by  Messrs. 
Steenbock  and  Elmer  Nelson.  A ration  low  in  fat-soluble  vita- 
mine, which  consisted  of  skimmed  milk,  rolled  oats,  and  white 
corn  meal  mush,  plus  calcium,  phosphate,  and  common  salt, 
has  produced  typical  rickets  (bone  disease)  within  six  to 
seven  weeks  in  young  dogs.  However,  when  a small  allow- 
ance of  cod  liver  oil  was  added  to  the  same  ration  normal 
growth  resulted.  Various  other  additions  to  such  a ration 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


are  being  tested  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be  possible  to  find 
definitely  whether  the  factor  governing  the  use  of  lime  is  the 
fat-soluble  vitamine  or  not. 


FIG.  40.— COD-LIVER  OIL  RICH  IN  FAT-SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 

Fed  on  a ration  of  oatmeal,  white  cornmeal,  calcium  phosphate, 
salt,  and  sterilized  skim  milk.  Insufficient  for  proper  growth. 

The  same  dog  after  being  cured  by  a daily  feeding  of  cod-liver  oil — 
entire  constitution  apparently  stimulated  by  the  potency  of  the  vitamine. 

In  these  experiments  it  has  been  found  that  on  a ration  low 
in  fat-soluble  vitamine  dogs  suffer  from  the  same  eye  disease 
(xeropthalmia)  as  do  rats  on  such  a diet. 

Technical  Articles 

Much  of  the  technical  scientific  output  of  the  experiment  station 
staff  is  first  presented  to  the  scientific  public  through  the  medium 
of  the  science  periodicals  and  publications  of  scientific  societies.  The 
publication  of  such  matter  enables  our  workers  to  have  their  results 
scrutinized  by  their  scientific  colleagues.  The  following  articles  have 
been  published  during  the  past  year,  ending  June  30,  1921: 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


137 


Anderson,  J.  A.,  Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Peterson,  W.  H.  The  relation  be- 
tween the  number  of  bacteria  and  acid  production  in  the  fermenta- 
tion of  xylose.  Jour.  Infectious  Diseases.  27:281-292.  1920. 

Arzberger,  C.  F.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  Certain  factors 
that  influence  acetone  production  by  bacillus  acetoethylicum. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  44:2.  1920. 

Bauer,  F.  C.  The  relation  of  organic  matter  and  the  feeding  power 
of  plants  to  the  utilization  of  rock  phosphate.  Soil  Science. 
12:21-41.  1921. 

Beach,  B.  A.  Contagious  abortion  of  sows.  Proc.  Wis.  Vet.  Med. 
Assn.  6:87-89.  1921. 

Davis,  Marguerite  and  Outhouse,  Julia.  Effect  of  a ration  low  in  fat- 
soluble  “A”  on  the  tissues  of  rats.  Am.  Jour.  Diseases  of  Chil- 
dren. 12:307-311.  1921. 

Dickson,  J.  G.  The  relation  of  certain  nutritive  elements  to  the  com- 
position of  the  oat  plant.  Am.  Jour.  Bot.  8:256-274.  1921. 

Dickson,  J.  G.  The  influence  of  soil  temperature  on  the  development 
of  the  seedling  blight  of  cereals  caused  by  Gibberella  saubinetii. 
Phytopath.  11:35.  1921. 

Dickson,  J.  G.,  Johann,  Helen,  and  Wineland  Grace.  Second  progress 
report  on  the  Fusarium  blight  (scab)  of  wheat.  Phytopath.  11:35. 
1921. 

Ellis  N.  R.,  Steenbock,  H.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Some  observations  on  the 
stability  of  the  antiscorbutic  vitamine  and  its  behavior  to  various 
treatments.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  46:  No.  2.  1921. 

Fluke,  C.  L.  The  pea  moth  in  Wisconsin.  Jour.  Economic  Entomology. 
14:94-98.  1921. 

Fred,  E.  B.  The  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  inoculated  soy 
beans.  Soil  Science.  11:  No.  6.  1921. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Peterson,  W.  H.  The  fermentation  of  xylose  by 
bacteria  of  aerogenes,  paratyphoid  B.  and  typhoid  groups.  Jour. 
Infectious  Diseases.  27:539-549.  1920. 

Fred  E.  B.,  and  Peterson,  W.  H.  Fermentation  process  for  the  pro- 
duction of  acetic  and  lactic  acid  from  corncobs.  Jour.  Indus,  and 
Engineering  Chem.  13:211.  1921. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Anderson  J.  A.  The  relation  of 
lactic  acid  bacteria  to  corn  silage.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  46:  No.  2. 
1921. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Davenport,  Audrey.  The  effect  of  organic  nitrogenous 
compounds  on  the  nitrate-forming  organism.  Soil  Science.  11: 
No.  5.  1921. 

Fred  E.  B.,  Wright,  W.  H.,  and  Frazier,  W.  C.  Field  Tests  on  the 
inoculation  of  canning  peas.  Soil  Science.  11:  No.  6.  1921. 

Frost  W.  D.  Improved  technic  of  the  micro  or  little  plate  method 
of  counting  bacteria  in  milk.  Jour.  Infectious  Diseases.  28:176- 
184.  1921. 

Frost,  W.  D.,  Charlton,  Alice  M.,  and  Little,  Mary  F.  A rapid  cultural 
method  of  diagnosing  diphtheria.  Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.  76:30-31. 
1921. 


138 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Hadley  F.  B.  Detecting  sick  cows  by  the  milk.  The  Vet.  Alumni  Quar. 
8:97-103.  1921. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Products  derived  from  the  animal  body.  , Vet.  Med. 
16:30  et  seq.  1921. 

Hadley,  F.  B.,  and  Beach,  B.  A.  Two  unusual  case  reports.  Jour.  Am. 
Vet.  Med.  Assn.  59:362-365.  1921. 

Haner,  Reba  Cordelia,  and  Frost,  W.  D.  The  characteristics  of  the 
microcolonies  of  some  pathogenic  cocci.  Jour.  Infectious  Dis- 
eases. 28:270-274.  1921. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Halpin,  J.  G.,  and  Steenbock,  H.  Use  of  synthetic  diets 
in  the  growth  of  baby  chicks — a study  of  leg  weakness  in  chickens. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  43:  No.  2.  1920. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.,  wth  cooperation  of  Lepkovsky,  S. 
Can  “home  grown  rations”  supply  proteins  of  adequate  quality  and 
quantity  for  high  milk  production?  II.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  44: 
No.  1.  1920. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  and  Ellis,  N.  R.  Influence  of  diet  on  the 
antiscorbutic  potency  of  milk.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  42:  No.  3.  1920. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  and  Ellis,  N.  R Antiscorbutic  potency  of 
milk  powders.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  46:  No.  2.  1921. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  and  Davenport,  Audrey.  The  relative  value  of  the 
methylene  blue  reduction  test,  the  bromthymol  blue  test,  and  the 
bromcresol  purple  test  in  determining  the  keeping  quality  of  milk. 
Reprinted  from  Jour.  Dairy  Science.  3:  No.  5.  120. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  and  Davenport,  Audrey.  The  effect  of  pasteuriza- 
tion on  the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk  when  this  is  determined 
by  the  direct  microscopic  count.  Reprinted  from  Jour.  Dairy 
Science.  3:  No.  6.  1920. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Agricultural  prices.  Nat.  Stockman  & Farmer.  Feb. 
19,  1921. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Fair  prices.  Nat.  Stockman  & Farmer.  Dec.  25,  1920. 
Hibbard,  B.  H.  What  the  farmer  may  expect  from  the  tariff.  Nat. 

Stockman  & Farmer.  April  14,  1921. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Stabilization  of  prices.  Am.  Econ.  Rev.  June,  1921. 
Jones,  L.  R.  Pasteur,  The  history  of  a mind.  Review.  Science,  n.  s. 
52:15-16.  1920. 

Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Walker,  J.  C.  The  relation  of  soil  temperature  and 
other  factors  to  onion  smut  and  infection.  Phytoparth.  11:52. 
1921. 

Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Williamson,  M.  M.  Bacterial  leaf  spot  of  red  clover. 
Phytopath.  11:50.  1921. 

Jones,  Sarah  V.  H.  Inheritance  of  silkiness  in  fowls.  Jour.  Heredity. 
12:117-128.  1921. 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  Leukel,  R.  W.  The  nematode  disease  of  cereals. 
Phytopath.  11:41.  1921. 

Johnson,  James.  Fusarium  wilt  of  tobacco.  Jour.  Agr.  Research.  20: 
515-535.  1921. 

Johnson,  James.  The  use  of  sterilized  soils  in  phytopathological  re- 
search. Phytopath.  11:51.  1921. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


139 


Johnson,  Janies.  Inheritance  of  disease  resistance  to  Thielavia  basi- 
cola.  Phytopath.  11:49.  1921. 

Keitt,  G.  W.  Second  progress  report  on  apple  scab  and  its  control  in 
Wisconsin.  Phytopath.  11:43.  1921. 

Lindstrom,  E.  W.  Chlorophyll  factors  of  maize.  Their  distribution 
on  the  chromosomes  and  relation  to  the  problem  of  inbreeding. 
Jour.  Heredity.  2:269-277.  1921. 

Lindstrom,  E.  W.  Concerning  the  inheritance  of  green  and  yellow 
pigment  in  maize  seedlings.  Genetics.  6:91-110.  1921. 

Lippincott,  W.  A.  A hen  which  changed  color.  Jour.  Heredity.  2: 
342-348.  1920. 

Lippincott,  W.  A.  Further  data  on  the  inheritance  of  blue  in  poultry. 
Am.  Naturalist.  55:289-327.  1921. 

Macklin,  Theodore.  Efficient  Marketing  for  Agriculture.  Macmillan 
Co.,  N.  Y.  1921. 

Macklin,  Theodore.  Efficient  marketing.  Hoard’s  Dairyman.  Dec. 
30,  1921. 

Morrison,  F.  B.  Nutritional  factors  in  swine  feeding.  Record  of 
Proceedings  of  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Am.  Society  of  Animal 
Production.  4-8.  1920. 

Morrison,  F.  B.,  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.,  and  Hulce,  R.  S.  Corn  stover 
silage  versus  corn  silage  for  milk  production.  Record  of  Pro- 
ceedings of  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Am.  Society  of  Animal  Pro- 
duction. 58-61.  1920. 

Parker,  F.  W.  The  effect  of  finely  divided  material  on  the  freezing 
points  of  water,  benzene,  and  nitrobenzene.  Jour.  Am.  Chem. 
Soc.  43:1011-1018.  1921. 

Parker,  F.  W.  Methods  of  studying  the  concentration  and  composi- 
tion of  the  soil  solution.  Soil  Science.  12:209-232.  1921. 

Parker,  F.  W.  The  displacement  method  for  obtaining  the  soil  solu- 
tion. Science.  54:438.  1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.  The  antiscorbutic  content  of  certain  body  tissues  of 
the  rat.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  44:587.  1920. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  and  McCollum,  E.  Y.  The  antiscorbutic  requirement 
of  the  prairie  dog.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  44:603.  1920. 

Parsons  H.  T.,  and  others.  Experimental  rickets;  effect  of  cod- 

liver  oil  administered  to  rats  with  experimental  rickets.  Jour. 
Biol.  Chem.  45:343.  1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  and  others.  Experimental  rickets;  production  of 

rachitis  and  similar  diseases  in  rat  by  deficient  diets.  Jour. 
Biol.  Chem.  45:333.  1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  and  Simmonds,  N.  Supplementary 
protein  values  in  foods;  nutritive  properties  of  animal  tissues. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:111.  1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  and  Simmonds,  N.  Supplementary 
protein  values  in  foods;  supplementary  dietary  relations  between 
animal  tissues  and  cereal  and  legume  seeds.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
47:139.  1921. 


140 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Parsons,  H.  T.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  and  Simmonds,  N.  Supplementary 
protein  values  in  foods;  supplementary  dietary  relations  between 
protein  of  cereal  grains  and  potato.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:175. 
1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  and  Simmonds,  N.  Supplementary 
protein  values  in  foods;  supplementary  relations  of  cereal  grain 
with  cereal  grains;  legume  seed  with  legume  seed;  and  cereal 
grain  with  legume  seed;  with  respect  to  improvement  in  quality 
of  their  proteins.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:207.  1921. 

Parsons,  H.  T.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  and  Simmonds,  N.  Supplementary 
protein  values  in  foods,  supplementary  relations  of  proteins  of 
milk  for  those  of  cereals  and  of  milk  for  those  of  legume  seeds. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:235.  1921. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Churchill,  Helen.  The  carbohydrate  content  of 
the  navy  bean.  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Society.  43:  No.  5.  1921. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  production  of  acetaldehyde  by 
certain  pentose-fermenting  bacteria.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  44:  No.  1. 

1920. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Verhulst,  J.  H.  The  destruction 
of  pentosans  in  the  formation  of  silage.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  46: 
No.  2.  1921. 

Sommer,  H.  H.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Grading  milk  by  the  acid  test:  influ- 
ence of  acids  in  the  ration  on  the  acidity  of  milk.  Jour.  Dairy 
Science.  4:  No.  1.  1921. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Sell,  Mariana  T.,  and  Buell,  Mary  V.  Fat-soluble  vi- 
tamine — VII,  The  fat-soluble  vitamine  and  yellow  pigmentation  in 
animal  fats  with  some  observations  on  its  stability  to  saponifica- 
tion. Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:  No.  1.  1921. 

Swenehart,  John.  Utilization  of  war-salvaged  picric  acid  for  land 
clearing  and  other  agricultural  work.  Special  Bulletin.  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.  1921. 

Tisdale,  W.  B.,  and  Williamson,  M.  M.  Bacterial  leaf  spot  of  lima 
bean.  Phytopath.  11:52.  1921. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Sulfur  and  sulfur  composts  in 
relation  to  plant  nutrition.  Soil  Science.  11:  No.  1.  1921. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.,  Roberts,  R.  H.,  and  Lepkovsky,  S.  Hemicellulose 
of  apple  wood.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  45:  No.  3.  1921. 

Vaughan,  R.  E.  Inoculated  sulphur  for  potato  scab  control.  Phyto- 
path. 11:58.  1921. 

Walker,  J.  C.  A macrosporium  rot  of  onion.  Phytopath.  11:53.  1921. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Experiments  upon  formaldehyde  drip  control  of  onion 
smut.  Phytopath.  10:323-327.  1920. 

Walker,  J.  C.  The  occurrence  of  dodder  on  onions.  Phytopath.  11:53. 

1921. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Onion  smudge.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  20:685-721.  1921. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Rust  on  onion  followed  by  a secondary  parasite.  Phyto- 
path. 11:87-90.  1921. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


141 


PUBLICATIONS 

i 

A total  of  seventeen  new  popular  bulletins  and  four  reprints  were 
published  this  past  year  by  the  Experiment  Station,  an  increase  of  30 
per  cent  over  last  year.  Two  new  research  bulletins  were  also  issued. 
Eight  new  circulars  and  six  reprints  constitute  the  publications  of 
the  Extension  Service. 

A very  brief  digest  of  each  bulletin  is  given  below: 

POPULAR  BULLETINS 

Bulletin  317. — Off-Year  Apple  Bearing.  (R.  H.  Roberts).  Biennial 
bearing  is  not  a fixed  habit  of  trees;  it  may  be  modified  with  proper 
growth  conditions. 

Bulletin,  318. — Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin.  (R. 
T.  Ely,  B.  H.  Hibbard,  and  A.  B.  Cox).  A thorough  discussion  of 
financial  needs  on  cut-over  farms  during  the  pioneering  stage  and 
farm  improvement  stage. 

Bulletin  319. — Experiments  in  Farming.  Annual  Report  of  the  Di- 
rector of  the  Experiment  Station  for  1918-1919.  (H.  L.  Russell  and 

F.  B.  Morrison.)  The  results  secured  in  experimental  work  during 
the  year. 

Bulletin  320. — Clear  More  Land.  (John  Swenehart.)  A handbook 
on  land  clearing  for  the  farmer  on  cut-over  land. 

Bulletin  321. — Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs.  (J.  L.  Sam- 
mis  and  O.  A.  Juve.)  A summary  of  all  costs  of  making  cheese  is 
required  to  determine  a price  which  will  yield  a fair  labor  income. 

Bulletin  322. — Marketing  by  Federations.  (Theodore  Macklin.)  An 
explanation  of  the  working  of  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Fed- 
eration as  an  example  to  be  followed  in  forming  marketing  federa- 
tions. 

Bulletin  323. — New  Farm  Facts.  Annual  Report  of  the  Director 
1919-1920.  (H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison.)  Wisconsin  is  pros- 
pering through  the  application  of  science  to  the  everyday  efforts  of 
country  life. 

Bulletin  324. — What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar. 
(Theodore  Macklin  and  P.  E.  McNall.)  A detailed  discussion  of  the 
division  of  a consumer’s  dollar,  presenting  the  results  of  an  investi- 
gation among  Madison  retailers. 

Bulletin  325. — Dairy  Barns.  (O.  R.  Zeasman,  G.  C.  Humphrey,  and 
L.  M.  Schindler.)  Important  points  to  consider  in  building  a con- 
venient, economical,  and  durable  dairy  barn. 

Bulletin  326. — Wisconsin  Rye.  (R.  A.  Moore  and  B.  D.  Leith.) 
With  its  many  excellent  qualities,  rye  is  the  most  adaptable  of  small 
grain  crops. 

Bulletin  327. — Cost  of  Canning  Wisconsin  Peas.  (Theodore  Macklin.) 
A discussion  of  the  factors  involved  in  figuring  the  costs  on  one  of 
Wisconsin’s  important  industries. 


142 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  339 


Bulletin  328. — The  Farm  Well  Planned.  (D.  H.  Otis.)  Among  the 
many  points  suggested  for  a well  planned  farm  are  large,  regular 
fields,  and  a good  rotation  schedule. 

Bulletin  329. — Field  Peas  for  Wisconsin.  (E.  J.  Delwiche.)  It  is 
highly  important  that  Wisconsin  farmers  become  better  acquainted 
with  proper  methods  of  raising  one  of  their  profitable  crops — field 
peas. 

Bulletin  330. — Profitable  Root  Crops.  (E.  J.  Delwiche.)  Roots  are 
a splendid  supplement  to  silage  and  grain  feed,  and  are  of  especial 
value  where  no  silo  exists. 

Bulletin  331. — Potato  Scab.  (J.  W.  Brann  and  R.  E.  Vaughan.) 
Corrosive  sublimate  has  proved  the  best  disinfectant  for  seed  pota- 
toes, as  it  kills  the  scab  organisms  on  the  surface  of  the  tubers,  thus 
preventing  infection  of  the  soil. 

Bulletin  332. — Farms  Follow  Stumps.  (H.  L.  Russell.)  The  results 
secured  on  the  branch  stations  with  live  stock,  seeds,  and  soil,  con- 
verting the  cut-over  lands  into  well  developed  farms. 

Bulletin  333. — How  to  control  American  Foulbrood.  (H.  F.  Wilson.) 
As  American  Foulbrood  is  a bacterial  disease  carried  in  the  honey 
and  old  combs,  by  getting  rid  of  the  infected  honey  and  combs  the 
disease  may  be  controlled. 

RESEARCH  BULLETINS. 

Research  Bulletin  48. — Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage.  (L.  R.  Jones, 
J.  C.  Walker,  and  W.  B.  Tisdale.)  A discussion  of  results  secured  in 
experiments  with  cabbage,  resistant  to  cabbage  yellows. 

Research  Bulletin  49. — Influence  of  Rations  Restricted  to  the  Oat 
Plant  on  Reproduction  in  Cattle.  (E.  B.  Hart,  H.  Steenbock,  and 
G.  C.  Humphrey.)  Proper  mineral  content  is  an  important  consider- 
ation in  the  balancing  of  a good  feed  ration. 


New  Pages  In  Farming 


143 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  ACCOUNT 
WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION. 


1920-1921 

Dr. 

Cr. 

To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States,  as  per 
appropriation  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1921,  under 
the  acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and 
March  16,  1906.  

$30,000.00 

By  salaries  - - __  __ 

$17,200.00 

5,686.26 

458.36 

22.64 

145.52 

928.98 

1,029.33 

119.28 
2,415.91 

396.78 

100.28 
1,142.66 

312.00 

41.01 

1.00 

$30,000.00 

By  labor  _ _ __  _ __  

By  publications _ __  ___ 

By  postage  and  stationery..  __  _ _ __  _ 

By  freight  and  express _ _____  _ _ 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies  __  _ __  _ 

By  seeds  plants  and  sundry  supplies  _ 

By  fertilizers  __  ______ 

_ 

By  feeding  stuffs _ _ _.  _ 

By  tools  machinery  and  appliances  _ __  

By  furniture  and  fixtures. _ _ __  

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens..  __  _ 

By  live  stock  ___  _ _ 

By  traveling  expenses. ___  ____  _ 

By  contingent  expenses  _ _ _ _ 

Total  

1 $30,000.00 

--  1 * 'w; §£ 


'X  i ,y 


DIGEST 

Oats  is  a leading  Wisconsin  crop.  The  corn  acreage  is  only  about 
four-fifths  that  of  oats;  barley  is  about  one-fourth  and  rye  and  wheat 
are  each  about  one-fifth  of  the  oat  acreage.  Page  3. 

Oats  yields  about  the  same  number  of  pounds  to  an  acre  as  barley, 

but  a pound  of  oats  has  less  feeding  value.  Page  3. 

Northern  United  States,  Canada  and  the  north  European  countries 
yield  the  heaviest  oats  and  the  largest  crops.  The  late  and  medium 
late  large  kerneled  varieties  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  these 
regions.  Page  4. 

Lodging  is  the  most  difficult  problem  in  oat  production.  The  most 
common  cause  is  a very  rich  soil.  The  best  control  measures  are 
rotations  and  cultural  practices  which  will  reduce  the  fertility  for 
the  oat  crop.  Page  5. 

A heavy  hull  reduces  the  feeding  value  of  oats.  Varieties  differ  in 
the  amount  of  hull;  the  difference  in  seasons  will  also  cause  a varia- 
tion in  the  percentage  of  hull.  As  Jow  as  24  per  cent' and  as  high 
as  52  per  cent  of  hull  have  been  found  in  oats.  Page  6. 

Five  pedigree  varieties  of  outstanding  merit  have  been  produced  by 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  Each  of  these7  has  been  developed 
to  meet  particular  conditions.  Pages  7-10. 

Oats  should  not  be  sown  on  rich  ground.  In  the  rotation  it  should 
follow  corn  or  another  small  grain.  Page  11. 

The  broadcaster  will  give-  as  high  yields  as  the  drill  on  heavy  clay 
soils..  On  light  soils,  the  drill  gives  best  results.  In  such  soils  the 
main  object  is  to  get  the  grain  down  deep  enough  to  get  plenty  of 
moisture.  Pages  12-13. 

Early  oats  make  better  nurse  crops  as  a rule  than  do  late  oats. 

Page  14. 


Wisconsin  Oats 


B.  D.  Leith  and  E.  J.  Delwiche 

Oats  is  the  most  important  grain  crop  Wisconsin  pro- 
duces. This  grain  is  grown  upon  the  great  majority  of 
farms  in  the  state.  Compared  with  other  leading  cereal  crops 
for  the  past  five  years  (1917-21),  the  corn  acreage  is  about  four- 
fifths  that  of  oats,  barley  about  one-fourth,  and  rye  and  wheat 
each  about  one-fifth  of  the  oat  acreage. 

Because  oats  is  so  common,  however,  it  is  often  grown  under 
conditions  entirely  unsuited  to  it.  While  it  does  respond  to  poor 
treatment  better  than  any  cereal  crop,  yet  certain  care  in  the 
choice  of  the  variety  and  kind  of  soil  are  necessary  for  best 
results. 


Oats  Compared  With  Barley 

A comparison  of  barley  and  oat  yields  from  this  state  shows  a 
much  better  money  return  from  an  acre  of  barley  than  of  oats. 
This  is  explained  because  oats  is  often  grown  on  poorer  soils 
than  barley. 

The  data  from  the  Hill  Farm  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
where  oats  and  barley  are  both  grown,  give  a much  fairer  com- 
parison.1 A four-year  average  of  oats  is  62.3  bushels  per  acre  or 
1,994  pounds;  and  barley  for  the  same  four  years  gave  40.5 
bushels  per  acre  or  1,944  pounds.  This  makes  the  comparison 
very  close,  as  the  price  per  pound  of  these  two  grains  does  not 
vary  much.  In  feeding  value  there  is  an  advantage  in  favor  of 
barley  for  in  total  digestible  nutrients  88%  pounds  of  barley  is 
worth  100  pounds  of  oats.2 

While  barley  has  some  advantage  over  oats  as  a feed,  yet  oats 
has  a place  on  the  farm  that  barley  cannot  always  fill.  It  is 
the  most  palatable  horse  feed ; it  is  a more  agreeable  crop  to 


1 Wisconsin  Rye ; Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  326,  p.  4. 
7 Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry  and  Morrison. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


handle;  it  may  be  used  for  hay  in  combination  with  peas  or 
alone;  it  is  better  adapted  to  new  breakings  than  barley;  and 
on  light  sandy  soils  oats  will  give  good  returns  where  barley 
would  be  a failure. 

Climate  for  Oats 

The  heaviest  oats  and  the  highest  yields  are  produced  in 
northern  United  States,  Canada,  and  the  north  European  coun- 
tries, where  hot  weather  at  filling  time  rarely  occurs.  The  late 
and  medium  late  large  kerneled  varieties  are  particularly  well 
adapted  to  this  region.  Most  of  the  varieties  of  side  oats  are 
included  in  these  groups. 

South  of  this  belt  the  mid-season  varieties  do  best.  Again 
south  of  this,  the  early  small  kerneled  varieties  are  best  suited 
because  they  are  more  drouth  and  heat  resistant  than  the  later 
varieties.  Hot  climates  must  have  varieties  suited  to  such  con- 
ditions and  these  are  not  high  yielders. 

Northern  Wisconsin  is  in  the  late  oat  region.  Central  Wis- 
consin produces  mid-season  oats  best  and  the  mid-season  and 
early  oats  overlap  below  the  central  part  of  the  state.  Southern 
Wisconsin  and  Illinois  grow  early  oats  almost  exclusively. 

Increase  the  Yield 

Since  oats  is  so  common,  it  is  often  grown  under  conditions 
entirely  unsuited  to  it.  In  some  cases  it  is  merely  scattered  over 
the  ground  and  worked  in ; again  it  is  often  sown  on  ground  en- 
tirely too  rich  for  it.  It  responds  to  poor  methods  of  handling 
better  than  other  cereal  crops,  but  the  best  returns  will  be  ob- 
tained if  it  is  planted  on  soils  suitable  for  it  and  if  the  seed  is 
sown  properly. 

Too  many  growers  look  upon  oats  as  a filler  in  a crop  rotation 
to  be  used  for  feed  only,  and  therefore  think  that  any  kind  of 
oats  will  serve  the  purpose.  This  is  a serious  mistake.  The  great 
difference  in  the  producing  power  of  different  varieties  of  oats, 
is  shown  in  the  tables  of  yields  of  the  different  varieties  in  the 
appendix,  page  24. 

Pedigree  strains  superior  to  the  original  mixed  commercial 
varieties,  have  been  developed  by  the  agronomy  department  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture.  This  pedigreed  oats  can  be  grown  for 
seed  at  practically  the  same  cost  as  feed  oats.  The  oat  crop  can 


Wisconsin  Oats 


5 


thus  be  made  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  a cash  crop  and  a 
feed. 

Lodging  in  Oats 


The  fact  that  oats  lodges  easily  is  one  of  the  greatest  difficul- 
ties in  obtaining  a profitable  crop.  This  not  only  reduces  the  oat 


FTG.  1.— THRESHING  STATE’S  PRIDE  OATS  FROM  THE  SHOCK. 

Where  the  farmer  owns  his  own  threshing  rig  he  can  save  by  shock 
threshing. 


yield  but  also  smothers  out  the  new  seeding  when  it  is  sown  with 
the  oats.  With  the  increase  in  dairying,  therefore,  there  is  more 
oat  lodging,  due  to  the  greater  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Effect  of  Rate  of  Seeding  Upon  Lodging 

The  results  at  the  Marshfield  branch  station  indicate  strongly 
that  heavy  rates  of  seeding  will  cause  lodging. 

Table  I. — Percentage  of  Lodging  at  Marshfield 


Lodging  percentage 

Rate  of  seeding 

1917  and  1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1 bu 

No  lodging 
No  lodging 
No  lodging 
No  lodging 

0 

0 

0 

2 bu . 

33% 

100% 

0 

30% 

0 

3 bu _ . 

50% 

4 bu 

The  variety  used  in  the  tests  was  White  Jewel  Pedigree  No. 
132,  a strain  possessing  much  resistance  to  lodging. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Lodging  and  Supply  of  Plant  Food 

That  lodging  of  oats  can  be  only  partially  controlled,  at  best, 
by  various  fertilizer  treatments,  is  shown  by  tests  in  progress  at 
Marshfield  and  Madison.  A large  supply  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil  seems  to  favor  lodging  by  increasing  the  moisture  hold- 
ing capacity  of  the  soil,  thus  furnishing  more  water  than  the 
plant  needs  for  normal  development.  The  plant  gets  an  excess 
of  nitrates  under  these  conditions,  which  is  another  factor  in 
causing  lodging.  Seasons  of  abundant  rainfall  tend  to  produce 
a rank  growth  of  straw. 

No  solution  for  entirely  preventing  lodging  has  been  found. 
Any  variety  of  oats  will  lodge  on  rich  ground.  Some  kinds 
lodge  more  readily  than  others;  some  fill  out  fairly  well  when 
lodged,  while  others  produce  such  light  kernels  that  they  are 
practically  valueless. 

Where  lodging  is  troublesome,  reduce  the  fertility  before  sow- 
ing oats  by  growing  one  or  two  crops  of  corn  or  a crop  of  barley, 
spring  wheat,  or  winter  grain,  before  putting  in  to  oats.  Do  not 
work  up  a fine  seed  bed.  Disk  the  corn  stubble  instead  of  plow- 
ing it.  Choose  a variety  which  will  give  best  results  on  rich  soils. 


Common  Faults  of  Oats 
Lodges  on  rich  ground 
Yields  reduced  by  hot  weather  while  filling 
Is  subject  to  rust  and  smut 
Gives  light  weight  berries  when  climate  and  soil 
are  unfavorable 


Percentage  of  Hull 

A high  percentage  of  hull  in  oats  is  usually  caused  by  lodging, 
heat  or  drouth.  Light  weight  oats  makes  poor  feed  and  if  used 
as  seed  the  small  shriveled  kernels  will  give  the  young  plant  a 
very  poor  start  in  life.  The  following  data  are  taken  from  ex- 
periments in  the  department  of  agronomy: 


Table  II. — Percentage  of  Hull  in  Two  Varieties 


1913  ^ 

1914 

1915 

1915 

1917 

1918 

1919 

7-year  average 

Pod.  No.  7 j 

24.11 

34.2 

27.48 

29.99 

27.2 

29.7 

26  59 

28  4' 

Ped.  No.  1 

25.05 

34.55 

28.05 

31  7 

28.0 

28.22“ 

32.18 

■19  68 

Wisconsin  Oats 


7 


This  table  shows  that  a difference  of  nearly  10  per  cent  in 
hull  was  caused  by  the  season.  1913  gave  the  lowest  and  1914 
the  highest  percentages.  The  variation  between  Pedigree  No.  7 
and  Pedigree  No.  1 is  not  so  great  as  the  variation  found  in 
different  years.  Seasons  do  not  affect  all  varieties  alike;  1918 
gave  Pedigree  No.  7 a heavier  hull  than  Pedigree  No.  1,  while 
1919  gave  Pedigree  No.  7 a very  light  hull  and  Pedigree  No.  1 
a comparatively  heavy  one. 

Varieties  differ  widely  in  their  natural  tendency  to  produce 
hulls.  The  Pedigree  No.  7 and  Pedigree  No.  1 have  compara- 
tively light  hulls,  ranging  from  about  24  to  34  per  cent.  Some 
varieties  run  10  to  20  per  cent  heavier.  An  extreme  case  was 
found  in  1916  where  a variety  gave  over  50  per  cent  hull.  Table 
III  shows  some  of  the  heaviest  yields  of  hull  found  in  101  tests 
over  a seven-year  period : 


Table  III. — Strains  Giving  Heavy  Yields  of  Hull 


Ped.  No.  10 

1916 

_ _ _52.81  p«r  rwit.  hull. 

Ped.  No.  14 

1914 

48.65  per  cent  hull. 

Ped.  No.  15 

1914 

-44.82  per  cent  hull. 

Ped.  No.  11 

1914 

44.23  per  cent  hull. 

Thinness  of  hull,  therefore,  is  a practical  point  to  keep  in  mind 
when  selecting  a variety  of  oats  to  grow. 


Oat  Groups 

According  to  color  we  have  black,  white,  yellow,  gray  or  dun 
and  red.  Some  varieties  are  fall  sown,  others  are  spring  sown. 
Some  are  hulled,  some  are  hull-less.  Some  are  early  maturing, 
some  mid-season,  and  some  late.  Some  have  a panicle  that 
spreads  in  all  directions  and  others  have  all  the  kernels  hanging 
on  one  side. 

Fall  sown  oats  are  not  suited  to  Wisconsin,  as  none  of  the 
varieties  are  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  the  winter.  Late 
maturing  varieties  are  adapted  to  the  climate  of  northern 
Europe,  where  the  growing  season  is  long  and  there  are  no 
hot  spells.  In  Wisconsin  the  mid-season  varieties  are  most  com- 
monly grown,  but  the  early  varieties  are  becoming  very  impor- 
tant in  the  southern  and  central  part  of  the  state. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  side  oats  are  late  maturing.  Only 
two  have  been  found — the  White  Jewel  and  White  Russian, 
which  are  adapted  to  upper  Wisconsin  conditions. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Varieties  for  Wisconsin 

Swedish  Select,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  5 
One  of  the  oldest  and  best  known  of  the  oat  varieties  in  Wis- 
consin is  the  Pedigree  No.  5.  This  is  a pure  line  selection  from 
the  Swedish  Select.  The  original  stock  from  which  this  selection 
was  made  was  obtained  from  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  1898.  Several  selections  were  made  and  bred  up 
by  the  centgener  method  and  finally  Pedigree  No.  5 was  found 
to  be  superior  to  its  competitors. 


FIG.  2— THE  TWO  LEADING  TYPES  OF  WISCONSIN  PEDIGREE  OATS 

Left — Wisconsin  Wonder,  Ped.  1. 

Right — State’s  Pride,  Ped.  7. 

The  kernel  is  large,  white,  and  plump.  The  head  is  large  and 
spreading ; the  straw  grows  tall  and  rank.  Where  the  soil  is  not 
too  heavily  charged  with  nitrogen  and  organic  matter  Pedigree 
No.  5 yields  heavily  and  stands  up  well.  But  it  lodges  easily  on 
rich  soils  and  hence  is  not  suited  to  farms  maintaining  large  herds 
of  live  stock. 


Wisconsin  Oats 


9 


Wisconsin  Wonder,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1 

The  most  popular  oat  in  Wisconsin  is  the  Wisconsin  Wonder, 
Pedigree  No.  1.  This  is  a pure  line  selection  from  a strain  of 
oats  received  from  a Jefferson  county  farmer  in  1901.  It  was 
also  bred  by  the  centgener  method ; and  among  many  competing 
individuals  Pedigree  No.  1 was  selected. 

This  oat  has  a stiffer  straw  than  the  Pedigree  No.  5,  the 
kernel  is  also  white  but  more  slender.  The  tables  in  the  appendix 
show  that  this  oats  has  the  highest  average  yields  of  the  mid- 
season varieties,  except  at  Ashland  and  Spooner.  It  withstands 
lodging  on  rich  soils  much  better  than  Pedigree  No.  5.  It  is  the 
oat  most  widely  grown  in  the  state. 

State’s  Pride,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  7 

Pedigree  No.  7,  a pure  line  selection  from  the  Kherson  oats, 
has  come  into  prominence  during  the  last  few  years.  The  orig- 
inal stock  of  this  oats  was  obtained  from  the  Nebraska  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1906.  The  Nebraska  station  obtained  its  lot 
from  the  Kherson  district  in  Russia,  where  the  climate  is  dry  and 
early  hardy  varieties  of  oats  are  grown. 

This  oats  is  yellow,  small-kerneled,  thin-hulled  and  early.  As 
a rule  the  straw  is  fine  and  does  not  grow  as  tall  as  the  Pedigree 
No.  1 and  matures  about  a week  earlier.  Owing  to  its  earliness 
it  is  one  of  the  best  nurse  crops.  It  often  escapes  rust,  heat  and 
lodging.  If  it  lodges  it  fills  out  the  kernel  well.  For  this  reason 
it  is  recommended  for  farms  having  very  rich  soils.  It  is  one 
of  the  highest  average  yielders  and  gave  a good  crop  at  Madison 
the  past  season  (1921),  when  the  mid-season  varieties  were 
practically  failures. 

The  small  sized  yellow  kernel  of  this  oats  is  somewhat  ob- 
jectionable. On  light  sandy  soils,  occasionally,  it  does  not  grow 
straw  long  enough  to  be  cut  with  the  binder. 

White  Cross,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  19 

As  small  size  and  yellow  color  were  objectionable  features  of 
Pedigree  No.  7,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  produce  a white 
oat  of  larger  size  than  the  Pedigree  No.  7 and  still  maintain  the 
earliness  and  high  yield.  Several  crosses  have  been  made  with 
that  end  in  view.  The  White  Cross,  Pedigree  No  19,  a pure  line 
selection  from  a cross  made  in  1911  between  the  Big  4 (Pedigree 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


2)  and  Sixty  Day,  is  showing  much  promise.  The  kernel  is 
white,  larger  than  the  Pedigree  No.  7,  is  from  two  to  three  days 
earlier,  and  the  yields  have  been  high. 

Forward,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1241 

This  strain  was  bred  at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  from 
Silver  Mine  stock.  In  a seven-year  test  it  outyielded  its  nearest 
competitor  by  five  bushels  per  acre  (See  Table  XIII).  It  has 
a white,  plump,  rather  short  kernel.  The  straw  is  stiff  and  of 
medium  height.  As  a yield  test  is  just  completed,  only  a small 
amount  has  been  disseminated. 

White  Russian,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1214,  and  White 
Jewel 

These  are  two  newer  oats  which  show  up  favorably  in  tests  at 
the  branch  stations.  The  White  Russian  is  not  susceptible  to 
rust  and  the  White  Jewel  is  quite  resistant  to  lodging. 

Dissemination 

The  Experiment  Station  work  with  small  grains  would  be  of 
comparatively  little  value  if  it  stopped  after  it  had  produced 
superior  varieties.  To  be  of  real  help  to  the  farmers  these  im- 
proved strains  should  reach  them  with  the  least  possible  delay. 
In  Wisconsin  this  is  accomplished  through  the  co-operation  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Association.  Members  are  entitled  to 
a small  amount  of  the  newer  superior  sorts,  and  thus,  through  the 
large  membership,  grains  are  quickly  disseminated. 

The  Experiment  Association  membership  includes  farmers  in 
neighboring  states  and  in  some  foreign  countries.  Because  of 
the  wide  distribution  of  members  and  the  popularity  of  the  best 
adapted  varieties  in  the  state,  many  acres  of  Wisconsin  pure  bred 
grains  are  found  outside  the  state. 

The  Experiment  Station  has  a further  advantage  in  the  co- 
operation of  this  organization  in  that  it  can  determine  the  adapt- 
ability of  new  varieties  to  varying  soil  and  climatic  regions. 

All  the  pure  bred  varieties  of  grains  have  been  disseminated 
through  this  association.  Prospective  purchasers  may  obtain  any 
of  these  through  members  or  through  the  different  Experiment 
Stations. 

Soils  for  Oats 

Oats  yields  best  on  clay  or  loam  soils  in  a moderate  state  of 
fertility.  It  lodges  on  rich  ground  more  easily  than  other  small 


Wisconsin  Oats 


11 


grain  crops.  On  light  sandy  soils,  oats  will  give  as  good  returns 
as  any  small  grain  crop  except  rye. 

As  rich  soils  are  unsuited  for  oats,  and  as  many  Wisconsin 
dairy  farms  have  such  soil,  it  is  necessary  to  use  varieties  which 
will  give  best  results  under  this  unfavorable  environment  or  to 
use  a rotation  which  will  reduce  the  fertility,  before  planting 
oats. 

Rotation  for  Oats 

In  general,  oats  should  be  placed  in  the  rotation  where  the 
least  amount  of  plant  food  is  available.  It  usually  follows  corn, 
or  potatoes,  both  heavy  users  of  plant  food. 

Where  pasture  is  needed,  the  following  four-year  rotation  is 
popular : 

Corn 

Oats  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy 

Clover  hay 

Pasture 

Stock  farms  usually  are  troubled  with  lodging  in  oats  due  to 
excessive  fertility.  In  good  corn-growing  localities  where  farms 
are  equipped  to  handle  large  amounts  of  corn  the  oats  is  put  in 


after  two  successive  corn  crops. 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

or 

Oats  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy 

Clover 

Clover  hay 

Pasture 

The  yields  after  various  crops,  which  are  averaged  in  Table  IV 
for  a four-year  period,  show  no  striking  differences — an  indica- 
tion that  oats  is  quite  tolerant,  so  far  as  rotation  is  concerned. 
The  difference  between  oats  after  oats  and  oats  after  peas  is 
quite  marked,  while  that  between  oats  after  corn  and  oats  after 
oats  is  much  less.  The  two  other  crops,  barley  and  rye,  were 
not  used  for  a long  enough  period  to  be  comparable.  In  1920, 
and  again  in  1921,  oats  gave  a relatively  good  yield  when  pre- 
ceded by  rye.  There  was  less  lodging  than  when  oats  followed 
corn  or  peas. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Table  IV. — Yield  of  Oats  After  Various  Crops — Marshfield  Station 


Year 

Barley 

Corn 

Oats 

Peas  ; 

Rye 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu 

1918 

51.1 

60.9 

67.8 

65.5 



1919 

38.0 

39.5 

47.1 

38.6 



1920 



41.7 

30.9 

49.4 

47  2 

1921 



23.8 

21.3 

21.8 

26.5 

Average 

— 

41.5 

39.3 

43.8 

— 

Two  crops  of  grain  in  succession  following  a crop  of  corn 
will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  rotations  given  above  and  will 
fit  the  needs  of  the  farmer  who  prefers  to  grow  more  grain  than 
corn.  At  Conrath  and  Marshfield  this  rotation  has  been  found 
well  suited  to  the  growing  of  oats : 

Corn,  potatoes  or  roots 

Barley,  wheat  or  rye 

Oats  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy 

Clover  hay 

Pasture 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed 

Where  the  soil  is  poor  or  only  moderately  fertile  the  seed 
bed  should  be  well  worked  up  with  the  disk  or  spring  tooth  and 
should  be  worked  down  fine  with  a smoothing  harrow.  In  other 
words,  prepare  as  good  a seed  bed  as  is  necessary  for  wheat  or 
barley. 

In  dairy  regions,  where  much  lodging  occurs  in  oats,  many 
farmers  disc  up  the  corn  ground  for  oats  in  the  spring  without 
fall  plowing.  This  saves  the  cost  of  plowing,  but  they  also 
claim  they  have  less  lodging  in  oats  as  a result.  This  is  sound 
practice.  In  the  first  place,  oats  will  stand  poorer  seed  bed  prep- 
aration than  other  small  grain  crops,  and  in  the  second  place,  too 
much  fertility  may  be  liberated  by  plowing  and  cultivation  where 
the  soil  is  very  rich.  Less  lodging,  therefore,  might  easily  be 
expected  from  this  practice.  (Experiments  from  the  Ohio  Re- 
search Station  bear  this  out).  The  great  difficulty  in  such  prac- 
tice, however,  is  that  the  ground  is  likely  to  become  weedy. 

Drilling  vs.  Broadcasting 

Many  farmers  on  heavy  clay  lands  prefer  the  broadcaster, 
while  the  drill  gives  best  results  on  light  soils.  Clay  soils 


Wisconsin  Oats 


13 


are  difficult  to  work  up  fine  enough  for  the  best  results  for  a 
drill.  When  they  are  worked  up  fine,  if  heavy  rains  occur  after 
seeding,  the  soil  is  likely  to  crust  over  the  seed  bed  and  prevent 
the  emergence  of  the  young  plants.  In  the  light  soils  the  main 
object  is  to  get  the  grain  down  deep  enough  to  get  plenty  of 
moisture.  No  hard  crust  forms  to  prevent  the  young  plants  from 
emerging. 

On  the  experimental  farm  at  Madison  in  a six-year  test  little 
difference  is  shown  btween  drilling  and  broadcasting.  Some 
years  show  a slight  advantage  in  favor  of  drilling  and  other 
years  show  a gain  from  broadcasting.  The  six-year  average  on 
Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1 oats  is  59.9  bushels  per  acre  yield 
from  drilling  and  61.5  bushels  per  acre  yield  from  broadcasting. 
On  the  Experimental  Farm  the  ground  was  thoroughly  worked 
and  the  grain  well  covered  when  broadcasted.  It  evidently 
makes  little  difference  which  type  of  seeder  is  used,  provided 
the  grain  is  properly  covered  and  put  where  it  will  receive  suffi- 
cient moisture. 


Table  V. — Drilling  vs.  Broadcasting — Ped.  No.  1 Oats 


Drilled 

Broadcasted 

Bu.  per  acre 

Bu.  per  acre 

1916 

71.9 

77.9 

1017 

76.9 

79.4 

1918 

57.2 

61.6 

1919 

41.3 

38.4 

1920 

82.1 

88.1 

1921  _ . 

26.1 

23.8 

Six-year  average 

59.9 

61.5 

Date  of  Seeding 

For  best  results,  sow  oats  as  early  as  possible.  Late  seeding 
of  oats  is  more  apt  to  suffer  loss  from  rust,  lodging  and  heat 
damage  than  early  seeding. 

Where  a piece  of  ground  is  prepared  late  and  it  is  desired  to 
get  it  seeded  down,  oats  is  one  of  the  best  crops  to  plant.  In  this 
case  the  oats  should  be  cut  for  hay,  as  there  will  be  little  chance 
of  having  grain  of  good  quality  under  such  conditions.  Rust  or 
lodging  is  almost  sure  to  injure  it  if  left  for  seed.  Furthermore, 
the  early  removal  of  the  crop  will  be  beneficial  to  the  young 
seeding. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Rate  of  Seeding 

The  average  rate  of  seeding  oats  in  Wisconsin  is  2 y2  bushels 
per  acre.  While  the  Wisconsin  Station  has  no  data  on  rates  of 
seeding,  tests  carried  on  by  other  stations  show  that  a variation 
of  as  much  as  a bushel  per  acre  may  not  show  much  difference 
in  yield.  In  England  sometimes  as  much  as  five  bushels  per  acre 
is  sown.  On  rich  soils  three  bushels  per  acre  will  give  an  in- 
crease in  yield  over  2l/2  bushels  per  acre,  but  it  will  be  very  likely 
to  lodge,  thus  reducing  the  yield. 

When  used  as  a nurse  crop,  2 bushels  per  acre  is  preferred. 
This  competes  less  with  the  young  clover  plants  for  food  and 
moisture,  offers  less  shade,  and  there  is  less  liability  of  lodging. 
Lighter  rates  are  also  preferable  where  the  variety  has  small 
seed. 

Oats  As  a Nurse  Crop 

Heavy-leaved  late  maturing  varieties  of  oats  make  poor  nurse 
crops  because  they  shade  the  ground  too  much  and  occupy  the 
ground  too  long,  thus  draining  both  fertility  and  moisture  which 
is  needed  by  the  young  clover  plants.  If  the  oats  is  cut  during 
hot,  dry  weather,  the  sudden  exposure  of  the  clover  to  the  hot 
sun  may  seriously  injure  it.  The  heavier  the  shading  the  more 
severe  the  injury  will  be. 

The  Kherson  varieties  are  superior  to  other  types  of  oats  as 
nurse  crops.  Its  early  maturity  and  rather  small  leaf  growth 
make  it  the  equal  of  any  other  small  grain  in  this  respect. 

Handling  the  Crop 

As  oats  does  not  shatter  easily  nor  cure  as  readily  in  the  bundle 
as  wheat  or  barley,  it  is  usually  not  cut  until  fully  ripe.  It  is  a 
mistake,  however,  to  wait  until  it  is  over-ripe.  Storms  may  come 
and  cause  bad  losses  through  lodging  and  beating  out  the  grain. 

Some  prefer  the  long  shock;  others  prefer  the  round.  The 
long  shock  allows  more  rapid  curing  and  drying  and  damages 
the  clover  seeding  less  than  the  round  shock.  The  round  shock 
turns  water  better;  and  where  the  shocks  are  apt  to  remain  in 
the  field  for  some  time,  they  should  be  made  round  and  properly 
capped. 

Unless  oats  can  be  threshed  just  as  soon  as  the  shocks  are 
cured  and  dry,  it  is  better  to  stack  than  to  allow  the  grain  to 


Wisconsin  Oats 


15 


stand  in  the  field  to  await  threshing.  The  probability  of  damage 
from  rains  is  too  great  to  take  any  unnecessary  chances  by  leav- 
ing the  grain  in  the  shocks.  Shock  threshed  grain  must  be  given 
special  attention  to  prevent  heating  in  the  bin.  Often  it  must 
be  spread  out  and  turned  several  times. 

Succotash 

Some  farmers  always  grow  a little  wheat  with  oats,  claiming 
that  they  get  better  results  than  by  growing  either  of  them  alone. 
The  Experiment  Station  at  Madison  has  carried  on  a test  for 
the  past  two  years  of  planting  Marquis  wheat  and  Pedigree  No.  1 
oats  together  in  equal  amounts  by  weight.  The  grain  was  sown 
with  the  drill  set  at  the  rate  of  2 bushels  per  acre  for  oats.  In 
neither  year  was  the  wheat  attacked  by  rust,  although  an  ad- 
joining strip  of  Marquis  was  badly  rusted  in  1920.  The  oats  in 
both  years  was  of  better  quality  than  that  grown  in  the  other 
plots.  Another  interesting  fact  was  that  no  lodging  occurred 
either  year.  The  possible  explanation  for  these  results  is  that 
the  oats  and  wheat  do  not  compete  as  strongly  when  planted  to- 
gether as  when  planted  alone,  and  the  wheat  straw  being  stiffer 
than  oats  helps  to  keep  it  from  lodging.  No  explanation  can  be 
suggested  now  for  the  difference  in  rust  infection. 

The  average  for  the  two  years  that  this  experiment  has  been 
carried  on  shows  that  “succotash”  has  outyielded  both  the 
Marquis  wheat  and  the  Pedigree  No.  1 oats  in  pounds  per  acre. 


Table  VI. — Yield  Per  Acre  in  Pounds 


Succotash 

Lbs. 

Ped.  No.  l Oats 
Lbs. 

Marquis  Wheat 
Lbs. 

1920 

2530.8 

2614.4 

1242 

1921 . 

1232 

787.2 

' 1122 

Average - - 

1881.4 

1700.8 

1182 

In  1920,  which  was  a particularly  favorable  season  for  oats, 
the  Pedigree  No.  1 oats  outyielded  the  “succotash,”  but  in  1921, 
which  was  a very  poor  season  for  oats,  the  “succotash”  out- 
yielded  the  oats.  This  test  will  be  continued,  as  a two  years’  test 
is  too  short  to  reach  conclusions. 

It  is  obvious  that  wheat  and  oats  cannot  be  sown  together  if 
either  is  to  be  sold  for  pure  bred  seed,  as  they  cannot  be  com- 
pletely separated  by  any  fanning  mill  on  the  market. 


STATE’S  PRIDE  OATS  AND  VARIETY  TES’ 


1 


iURCE  OP  PRIDE  AND  PROFIT 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Oat  Diseases 

Oats  has  two  diseases  which  cause  considerable  damage — rust 
and  smut  The  rust  that  attacks  oats  is  a different  species  from 
that  which  attacks  wheat.  The  wheat  rust  will  not  attack  oats 
and  the  oat  rust  will  not  attack  wheat.  No  practical  control  of 
oat  rust  has  been  found.  Treatments  which  will  kill  the  rust 
spore  will  kill  the  seed.  The  Red  Rust  Proof  oats,  which  is 
grown  as  a winter  oat  in  the  South,  shows  considerable  resistance 
to  rust,  but  this  variety  is  not  adapted  to  northern  conditions. 
Few  of  the  northern  varieties  of  oats  have  any  marked  resist- 
ance to  rust,  although  White  Russian  is  one  that  has. 

The  damage  from  oat  smut  may  become  very  serious  if  allowed 
to  go  without  attention.  One  sample  of  seed  was  sent  to  the 
Wisconsin  Station  three  years  ago  that  produced  fully  95  per  cent 
of  damage  in  the  resulting  crop.  Both  the  loose  and  covered 
smuts  of  oats  can  be  entirely  eradicated  by  the  formalin  treat- 
ment.3 Make  up  a solution  of  1 pint  formalin  to  30  gallons  of 
water.  Dip  the  grain  or  use  a good  smut  machine  that  wets  every 
kernel  thoroughly  with  the  solution.  If  the  work  is  done  care- 
fully and  all  sacks  and  other  containers  treated,  it  probably  will 
not  be  necessary  to  treat  again  for  three  or  four  years. 

Use  the  Fanning  Mill 

Always  fan  and  grade  the  seed  oats.  The  large  heavy  kernels 
are  always  to  be  preferred  for  seed,  as  they  have  a large  store  of 
plant  food  and  will  give  strong  vigorous  plants.  Small  shrunken 
endosperms  are  not  readily  detected  in  oats.  Often  the  hull  de- 
velops nearly  to  normal  size  and  the  meat  on  the  inside  is  very 
small  and  shrunken.  These  will  give  a very  weak  germination 
and  the  resulting  plants  will  lack  vigor  and  will  not  survive  if 
the  season  is  unfavorable.  The  result  will  be  a very  poor  stand 
and  a low  yield.  It  is  clearly  evident  then,  that  such  seeds  should 
be  cleaned  out  and  used  for  feed. 

It  is  worth  while  to  use  the  fanning  mill,  if  for  no  other  reason 
than  to  clean  out  the  chaff  and  bits  of  straw  in  the  grain.  Oats 
clogs  in  the  seeding  machinery  rather  easily  and  a small  amount 
of  trash  in  the  seed  may  cause  much  inequality  in  the  seeding. 


* Fight  Grain  Smuts  and  Blights,  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circular  57. 


Wisconsin  Oats 


19 


Variety  Tests 

One  of  the  objects  of  the  Experiment  Station  is  to  try  out  all 
the  varieties  offered  or  advertised  on  the  market  in  comparison 
with  standard  varieties.  Often  great  claims  are  made  for  a new 
strain  of  grain  and  a high  price  put  on  it.  So  far  no  advertised 
variety  has  been  found  which  is  superior  to  Wisconsin  improved 
pedigree  stocks.  Some  have  proved  very  good  but  in  many  cases 
it  is  very  evident  that  some  of  the  best  yielding  varieties  have 
been  renamed  and  resold  at  an  advanced  price.  These  often  are 
excellent  yielders  and  in  many  cases  are  competing  with  those  of 
their  own  kind.  As  an  illustration  of  the  confusion,  Etheridge4 
reports  138  names  for  Swedish  Select  oats. 


FIG.  3.— PLOT  THRESHING  ON  UNIVERSITY  EXPERIMENTAL  FARM 
Small  plots  are  used  to  determine  yields.  After  each  variety  is 
threshed  the  threshing  machine  must  be  cleaned  carefully.  The  grain 
is  weighed,  scaled  and  sacked  separately. 

Variety  tests  on  oats  were  begun  at  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Madison  in  1898.  Reports  on  the  results  of  the  earlier  tests  will 
be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  up  to  and  including  the  24th  annual  report. 

The  tables  in  the  appendix  show  the  comparative  yields  in  the 
variety  test  plots,  but  do  not  show  all  the  varieties  under  test 
either  at  Madison  or  at  any  of  the  branch  stations. 

4 Cornell  University  Memoir  10. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


In  many  cases  a variety  was  discarded  after  a one  or  two- 
year  test.  Oithers  were  carried  farther  but  later  thrown  out. 
Hundreds  of  new  selections  have  been  produced,  and  several 
of  them  reached  the  test  plots  but  were  later  discarded.  All 
such  yields  have  not  been  reported  in  the  appendix,  as  they 
add  no  valuable  information  and  would  needlessly  encumber 
the  tables.  The  tables  in  the  appendix  are  not  an  exhaustive 
report  of  the  Experiment  Station’s  variety  test  work  in  oats, 
but  rather  a compilation  of  results  which  may  be  helpful. 

The  size  of  the  test  plots  where  yields  have  been  obtained  were 
1/20  or  1/40  of  an  acre.  Since  1916  all  varieties  have  been 
grown  in  duplicate.  The  different  varieties  have  been  grown 
side  by  side  on  ground  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible.  The 
standard  pedigrees  are  grown  each  year  as  a standard  for  com- 
parison of  all  other  varieties. 

The  following  table  shows  the  seven  best  yielders  for  the  past 
four  years.  The  first  four  belong  to  the  Kherson  type,  State’s 
Pride  having  a comfortable  lead;  1921  brings  down  the  average 
of  the  medium  early  white  oats  and  makes  the  Kherson  oats 
stand  out  prominently. 


Table  VII. — Seven  Best  Varieties  of  Oats  (Grown  at  Madison 
OVER  FOUR-YEAR  PERIOD 1918-21) 


Variety 

Average  yield  per  acre 

Kt.atA’H  Prirtft,  "Perl.  NVv  7 ......  ........ 

66.1  bu. 

Golden  Rust  Proof 

61.5  bu. 

Town.  tor 

59.0  bu. 

Tnw»  ina  ...  _ 

58.6  bu. 

Wisconsin  Wonder,  . No.  1 __  _ 

67.4  bu. 

Gold  Mine 

White  Cross.  Ped.  No.  19 ; 

53.1  bu. 

52.2  bu. 

Variety  Tests  at  Ashland 

Improvement  and  breeding  work  at  the  Ashland  Station  was 
started  in  1908,  but  no  variety  tests  were  made  previous  to  1912. 
Work  under  very  similar  climatic  and  soil  conditions,  however, 
was  done  at  Superior  beginning  with  1908,  and  continued  until 
1912.  Selections  from  the  best  yielding  varieties  were  made  at 
Superior  in  1911  and  planted  in  nursery  rows  at  Ashland  in  1912. 
All  told,  some  200  selections  were  planted.  From  these  a few 
pedigree  strains  were  retained  and  put  in  the  regular  variety  test. 
At  Ashland  the  very  early  types,  such  as  Kherson  and  Early 
Daubeney,  were  dropped  out  because  of  low  yield  and  poor 
quality. 


Wisconsin  Oats 


21 


FIG.  4.— PEDIGREE  NO.  1289  OATS  AT  SUPERIOR 
This  oats  yields  over  80  bushels  an  acre. 


In  the  appendix  are  the  yields  for  all  varieties  which  were  un- 
der test.  The  following  table  is  a nine-year  average  of  the  best 
yielders.  Results  show  that  Forward,  Pedigree  No.  1241,  has 
a decided  lead.  This  variety  is  most  worthy  of  dissemination 
in  the  upper  section  of  the  state. 


Table  VIII. — Nine  Best  Yielders  at  Ashland  Station  (Average  for 

NINE  YEARS,  PURE  LINES  FOR  THE  LAST  FIVE  YEARS) 


Variety 

Average  yield  per  acre 

Forward  Ped.  No.  12.41 

55.9  bu. 

Wisconsin  Wnndpr  T>ArI  Nn  1 

51.7  bu. 

Early  Gothland,  Ped.  No.  4 

50.9  bu. 

Giant  Swedish,  *Ped.  No.  12.128 

50.4  bu. 

White  Russian,  Ped.  No.  12.14  

49.7  bu. 

Irish  Victor,  Ped.  No.  12.89 

47.5  bu. 

Swedish  Select,  Ped.  No.  5 

46.8  bu. 

White  Jewel,  Ped.  No.  M-13.1G-  _ 

44.6  bu. 

White  Jewel,  Ped.  M-132 

41.4  bu. 

22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Variety  Tests  at  Marshfield 

Variety  work  with  oats  at  the  Marshfield  Station  was  begun  in 
1912.  Owing  to  poor  drainage  conditions,  the  results  for  that 
year  are  not  included  as  they  are  not  comparable  between  varie- 
ties. In  1917  and  1918,  owing  to  faulty  labor  conditions,  some 
of  the  oats  were  mixed  and  others  not  threshed,  thus  breaking 
the  continuity  of  the  work.  Beginning  with  1920  a new  seed 
supply  was  sent  from  Ashland  and  Spooner. 

Results  have  been  very  unsatisfactory  for  these  reasons  and 
recommendations  of  varieties  are  made  with  reservations.  Pedi- 
gree No.  1,  Pedigree  No.  3 and  Pedigree  No.  4,  however,  are 
recommended  because  of  their  good  yield  and  considerable  re- 
sistance to  lodging. 


FIG.  5.— THE  NEW  IMPROVED  VARIETIES  ARE  GIVEN  CAREFUL 
STUDY  IN  ROWS 

After  observation  and  careful  study  the  superior  or  promising 
varieties  are  selected  for  further  testing  in  plots. 


Wisconsin  Oats 


23 


Table  IX. — Seven  Best  Yielders  at  Marshfield 
(Five-year  average — 1917-21) 


Variety 

Average  yield  per  acre 

Wisconsin  Wonder,  Ped.  No.  1 - 

50.6  bu. 

Tobolsk,  Ped.  No.  3 __ 

48.2  bu. 

Early  Gothland,  Ped.  No.  4 

46.7  bu. 

White  Russian,  Ped.  No.  1214-A 

46.7  bu. 

State’s  Pride,  Ped.  No.  7 

Swedish  Select,  Ped.  No.  5 

Irish  Victor,  Ped.  No.  1289- A - 

46.5  bu. 
45  6 bu. 

43.5  bu. 

Variety  Tests  at  Spooner 


Work  with  oats  was  begun  at  Spooner  in  1912,  with  26  varie- 
ties, three  of  which  were  pure  lines.  Selections  were  made  the 
same  year  and  a breeding  nursery  was  put  in  in  1913,  containing 


FIG.  6— BREED  OATS  THAT  DO  NOT  LODGE  READILY. 

Some  strains  of  oats  do  not  lodge  as  easily  as  others.  Pedigree  No. 
1241  and  White  Jewel  were  found  to  be  the  best  for  the  Lake  Superior 
district. 

some  400  different  pedigrees.  A few  of  the  most  promising  were 
continued  and  compared  with  standard  kinds  and  with  pedigree 
strains  from  various  sources.  Table  XIV  in  the  appendix  shows 
results  for  each  year  and  for  five-year  averages.  Table  X shows 
average  yields  for  nine  years  for  pure  lines  and  for  pure  lines 
with  the  parent  variety.  Medium  early  varieties  gave  the  best 
results  but  very  early  kinds  did  not  average  as  well. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Table  X. — Ten  Best  Yielders  at  Spooner  Station '(Average  for 

NINE  YEARS,  PURE  LINES  FOR  THE  LAST  FIVE  YEARS) 


Variety 

Average  yield  per  acre 

Silver  Mine,  Ped.  No.  S-13405 

36.9  bu. 

Big  Four,  Ped.  No.  S-1316 

36.8  bu. 

Early  Gothland,  Ped.  No.  4 

35.4  bu. 

Wisconsin  Wonder,  Ped.  No.  1 

35.1  bu. 

Scottish  Chief.  Ped.  No.  S-13325 

34  7 bu. 

Black  Finnish,  Ped.  No.  S-1300 

33.3  bu. 

Swedish  Select,  Ped.  No.  5 

33.1  bu. 

Tobolsk,  Ped.  No.  3_. 

32.8  bu. 

Silver  Mine,  Ped.  No.  8-— 

32.5  bu. 

Kherson,  Pe*L  No.  7 

31.5  bu. 

Table  XI. — Variety  Tests  of  Oats  at  Madison  Station 


Wisconsin  Oats 


25 


Table  XII. — Variety  Tests  of  Oats  at  Madison  Station 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


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al^ o SSS^B S Sssli £ 3 is 31  g'S'SS { e § S*11* & 

a .S2  .flOffiffioOS^OOPPPPPP  SS5  tefeSf!®OOiD«!fi  ■ • 0> 

fl > 55 pq m<!<2 (2 H ® ® <20 (§ P5 (S PS 03 « W t* S 02 MOO 35 PM fcPU O »B P3 « 


Table  XII. — (Continued) 


Wisconsin  Oats 


27 


5? 


•Sis 

to 

► Oi 

*3 


1921 

ooea«oeor-HN'ij<i>tooi©?©c*5 

sasassssssasg 

1 

eoQDOieo-^'^eooeoososNtO 

1919 

41.1 

40.5 

35.5 

34.2 
33.9 

1918 

till  1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 t 1 1 III  I I 1 1 1 

t> 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

s 

i i i i i i i i i i i a i 

i i i i i i i i i i 1 1 i 

l i i i i i i i i i i i i 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

1 i t i i i i i i i i i i i 

CD 

l i i i i i i l i i i i i 
1 i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i i i 1 i i i i i i i i 
i i i i 1 i i i i l i i i 

Cb 

i l i i i i i i i i i i i 

l i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i i i i i i t i l i l i 
i i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

ID 

i i i i i i t i i i i i i 
i l i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i l i i i i i i i l i i 
i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

& 

i i l i i i i i i i i i i 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i i i i i i i i i i i i i 
i t i i i i i i i i i i i 

© ~ ^ .S3  £“  o S®"©”? 
d^°fe-oa©59.9o>P^ 

2 -jjS  £ 

C|>C|>  ^cl  fe  £ 

in  O O ^ o>  -U  .»->  2 ® 
© © JS  -M  . >-?73  73  03  P 03  *2  C 

<5  .9  -r  os  © ss  o oj:  oC3m 

tZ5^^c£5^WC500«CDCy0 


Table  XIII. — Test  of  Oat  Varieties  at  Ashland  Branch  Station,  1909-1921 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


Variety  test  not  made  during  1918  on  account  of  war. 

Used  same  yield  for  varieties  marked  (*)  in  order  to  make  comparison  more  equitable.  (1914) 


Table  XIV.—' Test  of  Oat  Varieties  at  Spooner  Station,  1912-1921 


Wisconsin  Oats 


29 


Table  XV. — Test  of  Oat  Varieties  at  Marshfield,  1913-1921 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  340 


5-year 

average 

1917-21 

1 • 1 
t-  03  ! CO  • ! 

js  j | 
1 1 1 
1 1 1 
a i i 

45.6 

46.5 

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1 1 It-u»  Sa>  i S ! ! 1 ! 1 1 1 i : i 

I S ! cd  co  ! <g  ! ! i ! ! i1  ! S S J S 1 

j | j | | ; t i ; i | i | j 

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iii  i i i i i i i i i i i i 

iii  i i i i i i • i i i i i 

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6- year 
average 
1916-20 

1 1 1 
1 1 1 
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1915-19 

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1913-17 

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i 1 1-  co  co  i co  i i i i i i i i i i i 

ii  i i i i i i i i i i i i 

ii  t i i i i i i i i i i i 

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1917 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

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■^rtunio  i i t#i  tk  i6  eo  ■>*  ^ -i'  e<5  e5 i i i i 

ii  i i i i i i i i i i i 

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i 

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1916 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

^OOOOOOOOOOifllOlfilOlflOOO  I i i i ! 

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COCOCOCOCO'^lbcOkO^^CO^'^COCOCO^^  1 1 l i i i i i i i i 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

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1915 

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

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1 1 I I 1 1 1 I I 1 1 t-l  l 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

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1914 

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1 1 1 

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

i 1 i i 1 i i i i i i i a i 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i I 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 

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1913 

73.3 

69.8 
68.1 
70.  S 

71.0 

72.8 

75.0 

55.0 

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1 1 1 1 1 1 

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IIIIII 
IIIIII 
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till 
1 1 1 1 

till 

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till 
1 1 1 1 
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

i i i 1 i i i i i i i i i i 

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1 1 i ! i i i i 1 i i i i 1 

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EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 

Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 
R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Klein  heinz.  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,>  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  'Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 
W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 


H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husandry 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

V. *  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Carver,  Genetics 

F.  L.  Duley,  Soils 

A.  L.  DuRant,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  W.  Heal,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 
C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  D.  Samuels,  Soils 

E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Stevens,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  N.  Stroman,  Genetics 

M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 

C.  W.  Weber,  Veterinary  Science 
J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OK  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Heavy  yields  will  produce  the  largest  profits  under  present  condi- 
tions. Pages  3-4. 

More  clover  and  other  legumes  are  needed  for  feed  and  to  increase 
the  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Page  5. 

Phosphorus  and  lime  are  the  elements  most  needed  to  supplement 
manure  for  all  crops.  It  increases  the  yield  of  all  crops — especially 
clover  and  alfalfa.  Pages  6-14. 

The  best  method  of  using  phosphate  on  most  dairy  or  general  farms, 

is  by  the  regular  use  of  300  pounds  of  16%  acid  phosphate  or  100 
pounds  of  44%  treble  superphosphate  per  acre  on  all  grain  land  being 
seeded  to  clover.  Pages  15-16. 

Potash  is  not  generally  needed  except  on  peat  or  muck  soils  and 
for  certain  crops  such  as  potatoes,  tobacco,  sugar  beets,  and  cabbage. 
Page  17. 

Mixed  fertilizers,  cost  about  $10  per  ton  more  than  the  plant  food 
they  contain  costs  in  separate  forms.  Page  18. 

Lime  is  needed  by  all  plants,  but  especially  by  clover,  alfalfa,  beets, 
peas  and  barley.  Page  19. 

Acid  soils  contain  lime  and  usually  supply  enough  for  very  good 
yields  of  most  crops  including  clover  for  a number  of  years  after 
first  cleared  and  broken.  Page  20-22. 

Older  soils  usually  need  lime  except  some  of  those  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  state.  Field  trial  is  the  only  known  way  of  de- 
termining the  need  of  lime  with  certainty,  but  acid  soils  which  have 
been  cropped  15  years  or  more  practically  always  need  lime.  Page  23. 

Conserve  the  value  of  manure  by  handling  it  carefully.  Use  enough 
bedding  to  absorb  the  urine,  which  contains  a large  part  of  nitrogen 
and  potash,  and  do  not  let  it  be  leached  out  by  long  exposure  to  rain. 
Pages  24-25. 


The  Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 

A.  R.  Whitson  and  Griffith  Richards 

THE  BARNYARD  MANURE  produced  on  Wisconsin  live- 
stock farms  has  done  much  to  maintain  the  crop-producing 
power  of  the  soils  of  the  state.  In  the  past  it  has  been  practically 
the  only  form  of  fertilizer  used  by  Wisconsin  farmers,  but  the 
supply  is  not  large  enough  on  most  farms  to  produce  maximum 
yields.  Barnyard  manure,  moreover,  is  not  a well-balanced  fer- 
tilizer for  most  soils  or  crops,  and  should  be  supplemented  with  a 
phosphate  fertilizer  and  lime  to  secure  the  best  results. 

The  cost  of  raising  crops  has  increased  during  the  past  few 
years  to  such  an  extent  that  farmers  will  be  forced  to  increase 
their  yields  per  acre  in  order  to  make  any  profits.  It  may  be 
necessary,  therefore,  to  give  barnyard  manure  some  assistance 
if  the  soils  are  to  be  built  up  and  maintained  in  a highly  fertile 
and  productive  -condition.  It  is  true  that  the  soils  have  been 
robbed  of  some  of  their  original  store  of  plant  food  and  that  they 
do  lack  some  of  the  elements  essential  for  highest  crop  production. 

The  yields  of  all  staple  crops  grown  in  western  Europe  before 
the  war  were  about  double  the  average  yields  of  these  crops  in 
the  United  States.  Some  of  this  crop  increase  is  due  to  better 
tillage  methods,  but  it  is  largely  due  to  the  more  general  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers.  Practically  every  farmer  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany  uses  phosphates — often  potash  and  occa- 
sionally nitrogen,  while  the  use  of  lime  is  a general  practice. 

Wisconsin  farmers  are  certain  that  their  soils  are  deficient  in 
plant  food  elements  which  must  be  purchased  and  applied  to 
their  fields.  As  a result  they  are  actively  interested  in  agricul- 
tural limestone  and  commercial  fertilizers.  It  is  very  important, 
however,  that  farmers  select  the  fertilizers  best  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  their  particular  soils  and  that  they  be  properly  applied. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


Influence  of  Soil  Fertility  on  Quality  of  Crop 

The  composition  of  a crop  may  vary  with  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  on  which  it  is  grown.  The  old  method  of  measuring  the 
value  of  a feed  was  by  determining  the  amount  of  protein,  car- 
bohydrates, and  fats  it  contained,  but  it  has  been  discovered  re- 
cently that  the  mineral  constituents  in  the  crop  must  also  be  con- 
sidered. Feeds  with  high  lime  and  phosphorus  contents  are  espe- 
cially valuable  for  building  up  a good  bone  framework  for  the 
animals.  These  elements  must  be  in  the  soil  in  sufficient  amount 
and  available  form  to  be  taken  up  by  the  plant. 

Farmers  should  recognize  that  the  maintenance  of  a high 
standard  of  fertility  means  not  only  large  crop  yields,  but  also  a 
better  quality  of  feed  for  use,  especially  in  growing  young  ani- 
mals. It  may  be  difficult  to  put  a definite  valuation  on  this  ben- 
efit, but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  of  great  importance.  The 
best  breeders  of  livestock  in  Europe  and  in  this  country  now 
recognize  the  importance  of  supplying  the  growing  animals 
with  an  abundant  supply  of  minerals  in  the  feeds  or  as  a sup- 
plement to  the  feeds. 

Elements  Necessary  for  Plant  Growth 

The  thousands  of  plants  growing  on  the  earth  are  made  up 
largely  of  only  ten  chemical  elements.  Of  these  ten,  six  are  gen- 
erally found  in  sufficient  quantities  in  soils.  The  other  four  ele- 
ments, nitrogen,  phosphorus,  calcium  or  lime,  and  potassium  are 
likely  to  be  deficient.  The  farmer  who  plans  to  maintain  the  fer- 
tility of  his  farm  will  be  concerned  mainly  with  these  four  ele- 
ments. He,  therefore,  will  want  to  know  what  part  each  plays  in 
the  development  of  plants  and  what  are  the  best  methods  of  main- 
taining an  adequate  supply  of  these  elements. 

NITROGEN 

Nitrogen  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the  dark  green,  healthy  color 
and  rapid  growth  of  corn  or  other  crops  on  well-manured  land. 
It  seems  to  regulate  the  general  growth  of  the  plant.  The  amounts 
of  the  other  elements  of  plant  food  used  by  a crop  are  deter- 
mined by  the  amount  of  nitrogen  within  reach  of  the  crop,  conse- 
quently it  is  extremely  important  to  have  an  adequate  supply  of 
nitrogen  for  the  crop  at  all  times. 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


5 


While  it  is  important  to  have  sufficient  nitrogen  in  a soil,  ex- 
cessive amounts  are  detrimental  for  some  crops.  The  quality  of 
grain  may  be  seriously  injured  by  too  much  nitrogen.  The  grain 
may  weigh  less  per  bushel,  due  to  lodging  of  the  straw  and  poor 
filling  of  the  kernel.  Excessive  use  of  nitrogen  by  growing  crops 
may  also  make  them  less  resistant  to  attacks  of  fungous  diseases. 

Legume  Crops  Maintain  Nitrogen  In  Soils 

Virgin  soils  contain  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the  vegetable 
or  organic  matter,  but  if  they  are  cropped  continuously  to  such 
crops  as  corn,  oats  and  timothy  without  the  addition  of  fertilizing 
materials  containing  nitrogen,  the  nitrogen  supply  is  gradually 
exhausted  and  crop  yields  are  reduced. 

Some  crops  are  able  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  add 
it  to  the  supply  in  the  farm.  The  clovers,  alfalfa,  peas  and 
beans  have  bacteria  closely  associated  with  them  on  their  roots 
that  take  the  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  fix  it  in  the  plant 
roots.  This  is  a cheap  method  of  obtaining  nitrogen  and  one 
which  farmers  should  use  to  the  fullest  extent.  On  the  ordinary 
dairy  farm  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  land  under  cultivation  should 
be  seeded  to  clover  or  alfalfa.  If  this  is  fed  to  livestock  and  the 
manure  carefully  returned  to  the  land,  the  nitrogen  supply  will  be 
gradually  increased.  If  not  enough  livestock  is  kept  on  the  farm 
to  require  the  use  of  one-fourth  of  the  land  in  clover,  because 
some  land  is  in  cash  crops,  the  legume  crop  can  still  be  used  to 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  by  plowing  it  under  as  a green  manuring 
crop.  In  this  case  all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  crop  is  left  in  the 
soil  and  becomes  available  to  other  crops  gradually,  as  they  need 
it.  The  amount  of  clover  grown  on  an  acre  during  a year  costs 
only  the  price  of  seed  and  the  rental  value  of  the  land,  which 
would  total  from  $12  to  $15  an  acre.  It  will  add  from  100  pounds 
to  125  pounds  of  nitrogen,  however,  which  would  cost  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers  from  $20  to  $25.  The  clover  will  also  add  a 
large  amount  of  organic  matter  which  is  valuable  in  other  ways. 
Clover  or  other  legume  crops  should  be  used  as  the  chief  source 
of  nitrogen  on  most  of  the  livestock  farms  in  Wisconsin.  In  a 
few  special  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  use  a commercial  form  of 
nitrogen  fertilizer. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


The  growing  of  clover  or  other  legume  crops  is  the  starting 
point  in  the  up-building  of  soil  fertility,  but  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  clover  as  well  as  all  growing  crops  require  phos- 
phorus, potassium  and  lime  in  addition  to  nitrogen. 


HOW  TO  GROW  CLOVER  SUCCESSFULLY 

Seed  clover  on  each  field  regularly  every  third  or 
fourth  year. 

Purchase  the  best  clover  seed  and  use  plenty  of  it. 
Reduce  the  amount  of  timothy  seed  in  the  mixture  and 
replace  with  clover  seed. 

Prepare  a fine  seed  bed. 

See  that  the  soil  is  well  supplied  with  available  lime. 

Apply  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  at  the  rate  of  300 
to  400  pounds  or  100  pounds  of  treble  superphosphate 
an  acre  to  the  small  grain  when  seeding  down  to  clover. 

Use  barley  and  rye  for  nurse  crops  when  possible 
and  seed  lightly. 

If  the  grain  lodges  badly  or  if  the  season  is  very 
dry  cut  the  nurse  crop  for  hay. 

Top  dress  the  new  clover  seedings  with  a light  coat 
of  manure  in  the  fall. 

New  clover  seedings  should  never  be  pastured  in  the 
fall  or  spring. 

Lay  definite  plans  to  grow  a good  crop  of  clover. 


The  Nurse  Crop  Often  Kills  the  Clover 

Many  farmers  report  difficulty  in  getting  a good  catch  of  clo- 
ver and  complain  of  the  small  yields  even  when  the  stand  is  good. 
The  chief  reason  for  poor  results  with  clover  in  general  prob- 
ably lies  in  the  fact  that  many  people  think  that  since  clover  can 
secure  its  nitrogen  from  the  air  it  has  no  other  special  needs.  It 
is,  therefore,  sown  with  a grain  crop,  which  often  takes  most  of 
the  moisture  that  the  clover  should  have  as  well  as  the  other  ele- 
ments of  plant  food  necessary  to  give  it  a good  start.  Clover 
needs  phosphorus  and  lime  as  well  as  a good  supply  of  moisture 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


7 


and  must  also  have  a reasonable  amount  of  light  for  growth.  We 
call  a heavy  crop  of  oats  which  is  grown  with  the  clover  seeding 
a nurse  crop,  but  as  a matter  of  fact  it  is  very  far  from  being  a 
nurse.  It  actually  uses  a large  part  of  the  available  plant  food 
and  water  which  the  clover  needs.  Clover  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  crops  we  can  grow  and  it  is  worth  while  to  make  the 
effort  necessary  to  give  it  a real  chance. 


FIG  1.— EFFECTS  OF  USE  OF  FERTILIZER 


A — A poor  sandy  soil  at  Sparta.  On  right  of  picture  clover  failed  to 
grow.  Lime  produced  some  clover,  but  it  must  be  used  in  connection 
with  other  plant  foods. 

B — Another  plot  on  the  same  field.  The  plot  at  the  right  received  no 
fertilizer  and  no  clover  was  the  result.  The  center  plot  produced  3800 
lbs.  clover  when  lime,  phosphorus  and  potash  were  applied. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


Barley  is  a better  nurse  crop  than  oats  because  it  shades  the 
ground  less  and  is  cut  earlier,  but  a thin  seeding  of  early  oats  will 
usually  permit  a good  catch  of  clover  if  the  soil  is  in  a fair  state 
of  fertility.  If  the  oats  threatens  to  be  too  heavy  and  so  to  lodge 
badly,  or  in  case  of  continued  dry  weather,  it  may  sometimes  be 
necessary  to  cut  it  for  hay  when  in  the  milk  or  dough  stage 
rather  than  let  it  mature,  in  order  to  give  the  clover  a fair  chance. 

Use  Barnyard  Manure  to  Help  Grow  Clover 

When  clover  is  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops  and  manure 
is  used,  the  clover  gets  phosphorus  and  potassium,  and  even  some 
lime  from  the  manure.  However,  when  only  a moderate  amount 
of  manure  is  available  and  this  is  generally  applied  on  the  corn 
land  three  or  four  years  before  the  clover  is  seeded,  there  is 
usually  an  insufficient  supply  of  available  lime  and  phosphorus 
and  sometimes  of  potassium  in  the  soil  to  produce  the  best  results. 

Fields  which  have  been  heavily  manured  for  tobacco,  cabbage, 
and  other  truck  crops,  rarely  fail  to  grow  splendid  crops  of  clover, 
while  fields  on  farms  where  little  manure  is  produced  or  used, 
generally  produce  poor  yields  of  clover.  Farmers  who  have  a 
fair  supply  of  manure  can  greatly  increase  their  yields  of  clover 
by  supplementing  this  manure  with  lime  and  phosphate  fertilizers. 
The  farmer  who  grows  clover  successfully  puts  his  soil  in  shape 
to  grow  larger  crops  of  corn  and  small  grain,  and  the  increased 
crop  will  feed  more  livestock  which  will  furnish  more  manure, 
and  more  manure  will  again  help  to  grow  better  clover.  The 
fertility  of  a soil  which  produces  good  clover  can  be  easily  main- 
tained. 

Supply  Medium  Red  Clover  With  Plenty  of  Lime 

Clover  is  a strong  feeder  on  lime  and  must  have  a fair  supply 
available  in  order  to  make  its  best  growth.  A two-ton  crop  of 
medium  red  clover  will  extract  150  pounds  of  lime,  and  four  tons 
of  alfalfa  will  take  400  pounds  from  the  soil,  while  a two-ton 
crop  of  timothy  requires  only  40  pounds.  It  is  thus  very  easy  to 
understand  why  timothy  will  grow  on  soils  which  refuse  to  grow 
medium  red  clover  or  alfalfa.  The  lack  of  lime  in  soils  is  one  of 
the  big  factors  in  causing  Wisconsin  farmers  to  grow  six  acres  of 
timothy  to  each  acre  of  medium  red  clover  and  twelve  acres  of  a 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


9 


mixture  of  timothy  and  clover  (many  times  mostly  timothy)  to 
each  acre  of  medium  red  clover. 

The  clover  crop  can  not  gather  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  un- 
less the  clover  bacteria  find  conditions  favorable  for  their  devel- 
opment. It  is  known  that  these  bacteria  do  not  thrive  in  a soil 
which  is  low  in  available  lime.  Lime  must  therefore  be  supplied 
to  the  soil  when  needed  to  insure  good  inoculation  and  nodule 
development  on  the  roots  of  clover.  If  clover  does  not  have 
nodules  on  its  roots  it  has  no  nitrogen-gathering  power,  but  must 
extract  all  its  plant  food  from  the  soils,  as  do  corn,  the  grains, 
and  other  non-leguminous  crops.  Whenever  the  difficulty  in  get- 
ting a good  stand  of  clover  is  not  due  to  the  bad  effect  of  the  nurse 
crop  and  when  the  soil  is  in  a sufficiently  high  state  of  fertility 
to  produce  fair  yields  of  corn  and  oats,  and  not  of  clover,  the 
need  of  lime  is  the  most  common  cause  of  the  difficulty.  The 
amounts  of  lime  to  use  and  methods  of  application  are  discussed 
on  pages  20  and  21. 

Supply  Medium  Red  Clover  With  an  Abundance  of  Avail- 
able Phosphorus 

That  clover  requires  considerable  available  phosphorus  is  a 
very  important  fact  to  recognize.  There  is  a third  more  of  the 
element  phosphorus  in  a ton  of  clover  hay  than  will  be  found  in 
a ton  of  timothy  hay.  Unless  there  is  enough  of  this  element  in 
available  form,  left  after  the  growth  of  the  grain  preceding  the 
clover,  the  clover  is  unable  to  make  good  growth.  Almost  with- 
out exception  soils  that  are  deficient  in  lime  are  also  deficient  in 
phosphorus ; so  that  the  use  of  some  form  of  phosphorus  in  addi- 
tion to  lime  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  a good  stand  of  clover. 
The  lime  should  ordinarily  be  applied  to  the  corn  and  the  phos- 
phate for  the  grain  crop  with  which  the  clover  is  sown.  For 
amounts  and  methods  of  applying  phosphates  see  pages  14  and  15. 

The  experience  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  illustrates 
the  importance  of  phosphorus  in  addition  to  lime  for  clover  and 
alfalfa.  On  land  which  had  received  manure  only  in  rotation,  the 
yield  of  clover  was  2.53  tons  an  acre.  Lime  in  addition  raised 
the  yield  to  2.94,  while  phosphorus  and  lime  together  produced 
a yield  of  4.17  tons  an  acre.  In  the  case  of  alfalfa  the  yield  on 
land  which  had  been  manured  only  was  1.96  tons  as  an  average 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


for  the  years  1915  and  1916.  Lime  in  addition  to  manure  made 
the  average  2.9  tons,  while  the  addition  of  phosphorus  as  well  as 
lime  raised  the  yield  to  4.4  tons.  These  results  could  be  dupli- 
cated on  much  of  our  Wisconsin  land,  especially  the  dark  prairie 
loam  soils. 

PHOSPHORUS 

The  element  phosphorus  exists  in  all  soils  in  very  small 
amounts.  Many  of  the  best  types  of  soils  in  Wisconsin  contain 
only  1,200  pounds  of  phosphorus  in  an  acre  of  soil  to  a depth  of 
eight  inches,  and  this  is  in  a form  which  becomes  available  to 
crops  very  slowly.  It  is  constantly  being  lost  from  the  farm  in 


FIG.  2 — DOUBLING  THE  YIELD  BY  USE  OF  RIGHT  FERTILIZERS 

When  500  lbs.  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  per  acre  were  applied  to 
land  which  had  received  both  manure  and  limestone  the  yield  of  alfalfa 
was  nearly  doubled. 

crops,  milk,  and  in  the  bones  of  animals  sold.  It  can  not  be  se- 
cured from  the  air  and  the  loss  from  the  soil  must  in  the  long  run 
be  made  good  through  the  addition  of  phosphorus  fertilizers  in 
some  form.  It  is  well  understood  that  when  grain,  hay,  potatoes, 
or  other  cash  crops  are  sold,  this  element  is  removed  from  the 
farm. 

If  considerable  amounts  of  bran  or  cottonseed  meal  are  fed, 
which  are  relatively  high  in  phosphorus,  the  supply  of  this  ele- 
ment may  be  maintained.  It  would  usually  be  necessary  to  feed 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


11 


at  least  one-half  ton  of  bran  or  cottonseed  meal  to  each  cow  on 
a dairy  farm  per  year  to  maintain  the  phosphorus  supply  of  the 
soil.  Since  comparatively  few  farmers  do  that,  some  phosphate 
fertilizer  should  be  used. 

Phosphate  Fertilizers  Pay 

In  addition  to  the  long  time  experiments  being  conducted  on 
the  substations,  a number  of  field  trials  on  the  benefit  of  phos- 
phate fertilizers  have  been  made.  In  these  experiments  acid 
phosphate  at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  to  the  acre,  costing  about  $3, 
has  been  applied  broadcast  on  farms  on  which  dairy  stock  is  main- 
tained and  all  stable  manure  available  is  used  in  rotation. 

Table  I shows  the  results  of  phosphate  treatment  on  eight  rep- 
resentative fields  of  oats  grown  on  land  which  was  in  corn  the 
year  preceding  and  received  manure  for  the  corn. 

Table  I — Acre  Yields  of  Oats  with  and  without  Phosphate 
Fertilizers 


Farmer 

Soil  Type 

Phosphate 

No  Phosphate 

Mitehell 

Silt  loam 

Bushels 

87 

Bushels 

69.5 

Ha  swell 

Silt  loam_ 

94.3 

64.6 

Brown _ 

Sandy  loam 

44.0 

38  0 

Lee _ _ 

Silt  loam 

48.9 

45.9 

Vernon  County  Farm 

Silt  loam 

50.3 

46.8 

Lyon 

Silt  loam 

69.9 

50.0 

Sudgen 

Sandy  loam 

22.5 

17.5 

Craig 

Sandy  loam 

41.6 

26.7 

Averages 

57.3 

44.8 

The  average  of  these  eight  cases  shows  an  increase  of  12.5 
bushels  of  oats  which  at  40  cents  a bushel  would  be  worth  $5. 
At  least  one-half  the  value  of  the  phosphate  applied  is  still  in 
the  soil  for  the  benefit  of  clover  or  other  crops  following.  Charg- 
ing $1.50  against  the  oats  would  leave  a profit  of  $3.50  per  acre. 
There  would  be  an  equal  profit  from  the  other  half  on  the  clover 
next  year. 

A number  of  trials  on  the  application  of  acid  phosphate  to  corn 
have  also  been  made  from  which  representative  cases  are  shown 

in  Table  II. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


Table  II — Effect  of  Phosphate  Fertilizers  on  Wisconsin  Corn. 


Farmer 

Kind  of  Soil 

Manure  In  Rotation  i 
Plus  Phosphate  j 

Manure  in  Rotation 
No  Phosphate 

Griffin 

| 

Bushels 

30 

Bushels 

20 

Ashland  Experiment  Farm.. 
Brown 

Red  clay 

36.8 

84.3 

30.4 

71.1 

Wickstrom  . _ . 

Silt  loam 

74.6 

70.5 

Irish 

Silt  loam 

67.9 

63.7 

Sud  gen  _ _ 

Sandy  loam 

67.5 

54.8 

Craig  _ 

Sandy  loam 

60.2 

37.0 

Hopkins __ 

Silt  loam 

46.6 

44.6 

Bruins  

Silt  loam 

79.6 

75.4 

McCutchin 

Silt  lnmn 

80.0 

79.1 

Brueckner 

Silt  loam 

90.2 

86.3 

Average 

65.3 

57.6 

Corn  Silage 

Com  Silage 

Murrish 

Silt  loam 

Tons 

15.8 

Tons 

8.7 

Marshall - 

Silt  loam 

7.8 

6.7 

Spalbeck 

Silt  loam 

14.1 

11.7 

Average 

12.6 

9.0 

The  average  of  these  11  trials  shows  an  increase  of  7.7  bushels 
per  acre,  which  at  45  cents  per  bushel  would  be  worth  $3.50.  In 
this  case  also  not  more  than  one-half  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer 
should  be  charged  to  the  corn,  leaving  a profit  of  $2  an  acre. 

A large  number  of  determinations  of  the  increase  resulting 
from  the  use  of  phosphate  fertilizers  in  addition  to  stable  manure 
have  been  made  in  adjoining  states. 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  the  addition  of  320  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  to  manure  and  lime  every  three  years  has  given 
an  average  annual  increase  above  that  receiving  manure  and 
lime  only,  for  twenty-one  years,  of  8^3  bushels  of  corn,  5 J4 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  838  pounds  of  clover.  This  increase  is 
worth  over  $20,  while  the  phosphate  cost  $4.  The  director  of 
the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  says : 

“Acid  phosphate,  either  with  or  without  manure,  has  given 
large  profits  in  all  cases.  Per  dollar  invested,  it  has  been  by  far 
the  most  profitable  of  all  the  fertilizer  treatments,  either  alone, 
with  lime,  or  with  both  lime  and  manure.” 

In  Indiana  the  experiment  station  makes  the  following  state- 
ment : 

“As  a general  average  of  95  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  and  clover 
on  five  experiment  fields  during  the  last  12  years,  acid  phosphate 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


13 


has  yielded  crop  increases  valued  at  $8.46  an  acre  a year,  at  an 
average  cost  of  $1.38.” 

Governor  Hoard  was  a pioneer  in  the  use  of  phosphate  ferti- 
lizers on  the  dairy  farm.  This  practice  made  it  possible  to  grow 
the  splendid  crop  of  alfalfa  shown  in  the  picture  on  the  cover  of 
the  bulletin  which  is  from  a recent  photograph  of  the  Hoard 
homestead. 

Forms  of  Phosphate  Fertilizers 

The  chief  forms  of  phosphate  fertilizers  available  to  Wisconsin 
farmers  are  acid  phosphate,  treble  superphosphate,  raw  rock  phos- 
phate, and  bone  meal. 

Bone  meal  is  an  excellent  form  of  phosphate  fertilizer,  but  the 
supply  is  very  limited.  It  is  obtained  from  the  packing  houses 
and  other  slaughter  houses.  It  is  more  available  to  crops  than 
rock  phosphate,  but  not  as  quickly  available  as  acid  phosphate. 

Raw  rock  phosphate  is  found  in  natural  deposits  in  South  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  Florida,  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Montana.  It  is  pre- 
pared for  use  as  a fertilizer  by  being  reduced  to  fine  dust  which 
will  pass  through  a screen  having  100  openings  to  the  linear  inch. 
It  is  a relatively  insoluble  material  and  the  fine  grinding  makes 
it  become  available  more  rapidly  for  the  use  of  plants.  When 
this  fertilizer  is  used  in  connection  with  considerable  organic 
matter  such  as  stable  manure  or  on  a green  manuring  crop  being 
plowed  under  it  gives  excellent  results  when  the  soil  is  deficient 
in  phosphorus. 

Acid  phosphate  is  the  form  of  phosphate  fertilizer  most  ex- 
tensively used.  It  is  made  by  treating  one  ton  of  raw  rock  phos- 
phate with  one  ton  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  which  has  the  effect 
of  converting  the  phosphorus  into  a much  more  available  and 
active  condition.  It  usually  contains  either  14  or  16  per  cent  of 
soluble  phosphoric  acid.  More  highly  concentrated  forms  are 
also  made. 

Treble  superphosphate  is  a comparatively  new  form  of  phos- 
phate fertilizer.  It  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  acid  phosphate  ex- 
cept that  it  carries  approximately  three  times  as  much  phos- 
phorus.* This  material  has  not  been  used  in  the  field  very  long, 
but  the  trials  so  far  indicate  that  it  will  give  results  equal  to 
those  produced  by  acid  phosphate.  Under  present  conditions  in 

♦TJiis  means  that  one  ton  of  treble  superphosphate  is  practically  equal 
in  value  to  three  tons  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate.  The  statement  on 
page  37  of  Wis.  Agr.  Ext.  Cir.  142,  “A  Decade  of  County  Agent  Work” 
in  regard  to  this  comparison  is  not  clear. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


Wisconsin,  acid  phosphate  and  treble  superphosphate  are  prob- 
ably the  two  best  forms  to  use. 

Phosphate  Fertilizers  Not  Lost  by  Leaching 

There  is  practically  no  loss  of  phosphorus  from  the  soil  by 
leaching;  so  that  once  a phosphate  fertilizer  has  been  worked  into 
the  soil  it  will  remain  there  until  the  growing  crops  exhaust  it. 
It  is  best,  therefore,  to  put  on  as  much  phosphate  fertilizer  at  one 
time  as  will  be  needed  in  the  crop  rotation,  whether  that  be  three, 
four,  or  five  years  in  length ; and  it  makes  relatively  little  differ- 
ence whether  the  phosphate  is  applied  to  the  land  the  year  corn 
is  to  be  planted,  or  whether  it  is  put  on  when  oats  are  being 
sown.  All  crops  need  this  element  and  the  benefit  from  its  use 
is  as  great  in  the  case  of  oats  as  of  corn,  and  its  effect  on  clover 
or  alfalfa  is  even  greater  than  on  corn  or  oats. 


FIG.  3. — CORN  IMPROVED  BY  16  PER  CENT  ACID  PHOSPHATE 

The  application  of  40*0  lbs.  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  per  acre  im- 
proved the  quality  of  corn  grown  on  black  prairie  soil.  The  ears  of 
corn  were  filled  out  much  better,  which  increased  the  percentage  of 
shelled  corn  to  cob.  The  corn  also  matured  one  week  earlier. 

Amounts  of  Phosphate  Fertilizers  to  Apply 

When  raw  rock  phosphate,  the  insoluble  slow-acting  form  is 
applied,  the  applications  are  generally  from  1000  to  2000  pounds 
an  acre.  The  slow  availability  is  being  made  up  for  in  quantity. 
This  material  must  always  be  applied  along  with  barnyard  ma- 
nure, green  manuring  crops,  or  crop  residues.  When  it  is  applied 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


15 


to  soils  that  are  deficient  in  organic  matter  the  rate  of  applica- 
tion should  be  larger. 

On  good  upland  soil  where  dairying  or  general  farming  is 
practiced,  the  use  of  300  pounds  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  or 
100  pounds  of  treble  superphosphate  to  the  acre  every  four  years 
will  maintain  the  phosphate  supply.  If  much  grain,  potatoes,  or 
other  crops  are  sold,  about  double  these  amounts  should  be  used. 

On  soils  relatively  low  in  fertility  somewhat  more  phosphate 
should  be  used  at  first.  This  is  especially  true  of  dark  prairie 
soils  which  have  grown  corn  or  small  grains  a long  time  without 
the  use  of  manure  or  other  fertilizer.  On  peat  or  muck  soils, 
larger  amounts  of  phosphate  fertilizers  are  needed,  since  these 
soils  have  a relatively  small  amount  of  this  element.  While  the 
peat  and  muck  soils  of  the  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  the 
state  in  the  limestone  region  usually  do  not  need  phosphate  the 
first  few  years  after  they  are  brought  under  cultivation,  it  is  prac- 
tically certain  that  they  will  need  this  element  after  a number  of 
years  of  cropping.  All  of  the  peat  and  muck  soils  in  the  central 
and  northern  part  of  the  state  require  phosphate  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

Broadcast  or  Hill  Applications  of  Phosphate  Fertilizers 

Any  farmer  who  plans  to  improve  or  even  maintain  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soils  on  his  farm  will  want  to  fertilize  all  the  crops 
in  the  rotation.  A small  amount  of  phosphate  fertilizer  applied 
with  a fertilizer  attachment  on  a corn  planter  will  drop  it  near 
the  hill  and  in  this  way  the  corn  will  receive  marked  benefit,  but 
there  is  little  benefit  obtained  by  the  oats  or  clover  following  the 
corn  in.  this  method  of  application.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
phosphate  is  distributed  broadcast  in  larger  quantities  and  worked 
into  the  soil  for  either  corn  or  oats,  the  crops  following  will  re- 
ceive their  portion  of  the  benefit.  Unquestionably  the  best  prac- 
tice for  the  dairy  farmer  to  follow  is  the  broadcast  application, 
though  it  makes  relatively  little  difference  whether  the  phosphate 
be  applied  directly  to  the  corn,  oats  or  other  grains. 

Acid  Phosphate  does  not  make  soils  acid.  It  might  be  sup- 
posed that  acid  phosphate  would  have  a tendency  to  make  the 
soil  acid.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  The  acidity  of  the  fertilizer 
is  of  a kind  which  entirely  disappears,  and  experience  has  shown 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


that  its  use  for  a long  period  of  years  does  not  make  the  soil  more 
acid  than  it  would  be  without  it. 

Method  of  Applying  Phosphate  or  Other  Fertilizer 

Acid  or  treble  superphosphate,  as  well  as  other  commercial 
fertilizers,  are  salts  and  will  injure  the  seed  and  prevent  germina- 
tion if  they  are  in  immediate  contact  with  them.  When  the  fer- 
tilizer is  applied  in  the  hill  as  it  sometimes  is  with  corn  and  other 
hill  crops,  there  should  be  at  least  one-half  inch  of  soil  between 
the  seed  and  fertilizer.  Drills  which  sow  both  grain  and  fer- 
tilizer are  made  so  that  the  grain  and  fertilizer  are  not  too  closely 
mixed. 

The  condition  of  the  soil  should  also  be  considered  in  using 
fertilizers.  When  the  soil  is  quite  dry,  fertilizer  is  more  apt  to 
injure  the  seed  than  when  moist.  Three  hundred  pounds  of  fer- 
tilizer to  the  acre,  applied  with  a grain  drill,  will  not  injure  the 
seed  even  when  quite  dry,  but  much  larger  amounts  may.  On 
very  sandy  soils  there  is  more  danger  of  the  fertilizer  injuring 
the  seed  than  on  heavier  soils  because  they  hold  less  water  in 
which  the  fertilizer  will  dissolve.  When  applied  in  the  hill  for 
corn,  100  to  125  pounds  an  acre  is  all  that  can  safely  be  used 
under  ordinary  conditions.  When  drilled  in  for  corn,  175  to  200 
pounds  may  be  used. 

Fertilizer  and  Lime  Distributors 

Phosphate  or  other  fertilizers  or  lime  should  be  uniformly  dis- 
tributed, so  that  some  will  be  near  every  plant.  Ground  lime- 
stone is  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  2,000  to  4,000  pounds  or  more 
an  acre,  while  with  phosphates  and  other  fertilizers  the  amount 
applied  for  staple  crops  is  usually  from  200  to  400  pounds.  It  is, 
therefore,  very  difficult  to  construct  a machine  which  will  satis- 
factorily distribute  both  fertilizer  and  limestone,  although  excel- 
lent machines  are  on  the  market  for  distributing  each  separately. 
The  fertilizer  distributor  may  be  a part  of  a grain  drill  or  a sepa- 
rate machine.  The  machine  for  distributing  ground  limestone 
should  be  provided  with  a double  agitator  so  as  to  secure  con- 
tinuous feeding. 

End  gate  seeders  which  will  distribute  proper  amounts  of  either 
fertilizer  or  ground  limestone  fairly  well  are  available. 

When  a fertilizer  distributor  is  not  available  the  acid  phos- 
phate or  other  fertilizer  may  be  spread  evenly  over  the  manure 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


17 


in  the  manure  spreader,  and  so  receive  a very  fair  distribution. 
This  method  will  give  very  good  results  until  such  time  as  a 
grain  drill  with  fertilizer  attachment  can  be  purchased.  The 
amount  to  be  applied  on  each  spreader  load  must  be  calculated 
so  the  right  amount  per  acre  will  be  applied.  An  old  drill  or 
seeder  may  be  used  to  distribute  the  phosphate,  going  ahead  of 
the  grain  drill. 

POTASSIUM 

Upland  Earthy  Soils 

Potassium  exists  in  all  upland  earthy  soils  in  large  amounts,  but 
in  relatively  unavailable  form.  Chemical  analyses  of  these  soils 
show  that  they  often  contain  from  35,000  to  40,000  pounds  an 
acre  eight  inches,  while  these  same  soils  will  contain  only  one- 
eighteenth  as  much  phosphorus.  On  most  soils  of  fairly  heavy 
texture,  when  live  stock  is  maintained,  and  the  manure  carefully 
used  so  there  is  considerable  actively  decomposing  organic  matter 
in  the  soil,  a sufficient  amount  of  potassium  will  become  avail- 
able from  year  to  year  to  supply  the  needs  of  general  farm  crops. 
There  are  some  crops  that  need  relatively  large  amounts  of  po- 
tassium such  as  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  cabbage,  and  they  will 
often  be  benefited  by  some  addition  of  potash  in  fertilizer  form. 

Peat  and  Muck  Soils 

Peat  and  muck  soils  are  very  different  from  the  upland  earthy 
soils.  They  are  generally  very  low  in  potassium  and  it  must  be 
applied  in  some  form  unless  considerable  stable  manure  is  avail- 
able. When  these  soils  are  virgin  they  may  raise  from  two  to 
four  crops  without  the  addition  of  potassium  fertilizers,  but 
after  this  they  must  be  used  regularly.  The  equivalent  of  100 
pounds  of  high-grade  muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  every  other 
year  will  be  necessary  in  the  case  of  small  grain  or  hay.  Double 
this  amount  will  be  needed  for  corn  and  for  truck  crops  such  as 
cabbage,  sugar  beets,  or  onions  which  make  a heavy  growth  and 
drain  heavily  on  this  element  of  plant  food,  unless  manure  is 
used.  When  the  farm  includes  upland  as  well  as  marsh  the 
manure  should  largely  be  used  on  the  upland  and  potash  and 
phosphate  when  needed  should  be  used  on  the  marsh. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


Sandy  Soils 

Sandy  soils  lie  between  the  heavier  earthy  soils  such  as  silt  or 
clay  loams  and  the  mucks  in  regard  to  their  potassium  require- 
ments. The  use  of  some  potassium  on  these  soils  will  often  be 
profitable,  especially  when  crops  are  grown  that  use  rather  large 
amounts  of  this  element. 

Mixed  Fertilizers 

Since  certain  crops  such  as  cotton,  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  vege- 
tables are  grown  in  many  parts  of  the  country  by  farmers  who  do 
not  keep  much  livestock  and  who  do  not  rotate  these  crops  with 
legumes,  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen  and  potash,  as  well  as 
phosphorus  must  be  used.  Mixed  fertilizers  containing  varying 
amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potash  are  therefore  manu- 
factured and  offered  for  sale.  The  composition  of  these  fer- 
tilizers is  indicated  by  a formula.  A 2-10-4  fertilizer,  for  in- 
stance, is  one  containing  2 per  cent  of  ammonia,  or  nearly  2 per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  10  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  4 per  cent 
of  potash.  A 6-12-0  contains  6 per  cent  of  ammonia  containing 
about  5 per  cent  of  nitrogen,  12  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
no  potash. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  nitrogen  is  nitrate  of  soda;  of 
phosphoric  acid,  acid  phosphate,  and  of  potash,  muriate  of  potash. 
Nitrate  of  soda  contains  about  16  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  acid  phos- 
phate about  16  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  muriate  of  potash 
about  50  per  cent  of  potash;  so  that  100  pounds  of  a 2-10-4  fer- 
tilizer would  contain  about  the  equivalent  of  12^  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  62  ^ pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  8 pounds  of  high- 
grade  muriate  of  potash,  and  17  pounds  of  filler.  These  mixed 
fertilizers  cost  $5  to  $10  a ton  more  than  the  plant  food  in  them 
would  cost  if  bought  in  the  separate  forms  indicated  above.  This 
difference  represents  the  cost  of  mixing,  and  profits.  Mixed  fer- 
tilizers should  contain  not  less  than  a total  of  16  per  cent  of  plant 
food  elements. 

When  nitrogen  and  potash  are  to  be  used  as  well  as  phosphoric 
acid,  there  is  some  advantage  in  using  these  mixed  fertilizers. 
The  filler  gives  it  a good  mechanical  condition  so  that  it  will  dis- 
tribute easily  and  remain  in  condition  to  be  used  longer  than  is 
the  case  with  the  substances  containing  the  elements  separately. 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


19 


But  when  the  farmer  needs  to  use  only  a phosphate  fertilizer, 
purchasing  a mixed  fertilizer  means  that  he  is  buying  not  only 
nitrogen  and  potash  which  he  does  not  need,  but  he  is  compelled 
to  pay  a considerably  higher  price  for  the  phosphate  he  gets  than 
is  the  case  when  he  buys  a fertilizer  containing  phosphate  only. 
While  it  is  quite  true  that  these  mixed  fertilizers  have  a very  im- 
portant place  in  the  production  of  many  special  crops,  their  use 
is  not  necessary  in  dairy  or  stock  farming  as  a rule,  and  phos- 
phate fertilizers  in  addition  to  lime  are  usually  the  most  profitable. 

In  the  case  of  sandy  soils  on  which  an  effort  is  being  made  to 
raise  their  state  of  fertility,  it  may  be  desirable  to  use  moderate 
amounts  of  mixed  fertilizer  containing  both  nitrogen  and  potash 
as  well  as  phosphorus  such  as  a 4-10-4  fertilizer  until  clover  or 
other  legumes  are  produced  or  manure  is  available.  On  many 
muck  soils  it  is  necessary  to  use  both  potash  and  phosphorus  and 
here  a 0-10-10  fertilizer  can  be  used  to  advantage.  This  is  true 
generally  of  muck  or  peat  soils  in  the  central  and  northern  part 
of  the  state.  Or  the  farmer  can  buy  the  separate  potash  and  acid 
phosphate  fertilizers  and  mix  them  as  they  are  to  be  used,  thus 
saving  the  extra  cost  of  the  mixed  fertilizers. 

LIME 

Calcium,  the  chief  element  in  limestone,  and  magnesium  are 
two  other  closely  related  elements  which  all  plants  require  for 
growth.  Plants  vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of  calcium  or  lime  in 
the  soil  necessary  for  their  growth.  Alfalfa  requires  a large 
amount  of  this  element  and  in  available  form.  Medium  red 
clover,  barley,  sugar  beets,  and  tobacco  are  other  plants  requiring 
fairly  large  amounts  while  such  crops  as  corn,  oats,  soy  beans, 
timothy,  and  rye  will  grow  with  smaller  amounts  of  available 
lime,  or  are  able  to  get  their  supply  from  forms  which  are  not 
readily  available  to  the  other  plants  mentioned. 

Lime  can  exist  in  the  soil  in  different  combinations  with  other 
substances.  Ground  limestone  or  air-slaked  lime  is  lime  car- 
bonate. This  is  somewhat  soluble  in  soil  moisture  and  the  lime 
it  contains  combines  readily  with  the  nitrogen  which  is  being 
nitrified  and  is  absorbed  by  plants. 

But  lime  in  other  forms  than  carbonates  can  also  be  used — 
though  not  so  readily.  These  other  forms  of  lime  exist  in  acid 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


as  well  as  non-acid  soils.  So  all  crops  can  get  some  lime  from 
acid  soils  and  some  crops  can  get  enough  for  very  fair  yields. 
But  lime  in  the  form  of  carbonate  or  oxide  will  usually  produce  a 
profitable  increase  of  most  crops  on  acid  soil  after  they  have  been 
farmed  10  to  15  years  and  sooner  on  sandy  soils. 

On  the  very  acid  soils  at  Marshfield  the  addition  of  two  tons  of 
lime  per  acre  to  manure  and  phosphorus  increased  the  yield  of 
corn  from  56.5  bushels  to  63.95;  of  oats  from  57.2  to  63.4;  and 
of  clover  from  4527  pounds  to  5020  pounds  an  acre.  The  figures 
for  corn  and  clover  are  the  average  for  four  years  and  for  oats  for 
five  years.  This  increase  of  7.4  bushels  of  corn,  6.2  bushels  of 
oats,  and  nearly  one  quarter  of  a ton  of  clover,  would  have  a 
value  of  about  $9  for  the  three  years  of  a rotation  following  the 
application  of  lime.  This  land  had  been  farmed  about  12  years 
before  the  experiments  were  started. 

Even  on  very  poor  soil,  proper  use  of  lime  and  fertilizer  will 
permit  a good  crop  of  clover  when  the  rainfall  is  at  all  satisfac- 
tory. At  Sparta  on  very  poor  sandy  soil  exhausted  by  a number 
of  years  of  cropping,  the  use  of  phosphate,  potash,  and  lime  gave 
a yield  of  clover  in  1914  of  3800  pounds  an  acre  in  two  cuttings, 
while  without  fertilizer  there  was  no  catch  of  clover  whatever. 
With  lime  alone  the  yield  was  only  600  pounds  an  acre. 

Form  of  Lime  to  Use 

Lime  is  most  generally  used  in  either  of  two  forms : first,  quick 
or  burned  lime  after  it  is  water  slaked ; and,  second,  ground  lime- 
stone. Quick  lime  is  relatively  expensive,  and  it  is  so  unpleasant 
to  slake  and  spread  that  comparatively  little  lime  is  used  in  this 
form  in  the  West,  though  it  has  been  used  largely  in  that  form  in 
eastern  states  for  a great  many  years.  While  it  is  necessary  to 
use  practically  twice  as  much  ground  limestone  as  quick  lime,  its 
convenience  in  handling  is  much  greater. 

Rate  of  Application  of  Ground  Limestone 

When  the  soil  has  been  farmed  15  years  or  more  and  is  quite 
acid  and  alfalfa  is  to  be  grown,  from  two  to  three  tons  of  a good 
grade  of  ground  limestone  must  be  used.  For  other  crops,  two 
tons  will  usually  be  sufficient  for  the  first  application  and  an 
average  of  one  ton  an  acre  every  four  to  five  years  thereafter 
will  maintain  the  supply  of  this  element. 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


21 


It  is  not  necessary  to  add  as  much  limestone  as  would  be  needed 
to  entirely  correct  the  acidity.  This  would  often  require  four  to 
six  tons  or  more  to  the  acre,  while  the  results  reported  by  F.  L. 
Musbach  at  Marshfield  show  excellent  results  from  two  tons  an 
acre,  and  the  studies  of  E.  B.  Fred  and  E.  J.  Graul  show  that 
nearly  as  much  benefit  is  secured  by  the  use  of  one-half  the 
amounts  of  lime  necessary  to  neutralize  the  acidity  as  by  the 
whole  amount. 

The  chief  loss  of  lime  from  the  soil  is  not  that  which  the  plants 
take,  but  by  leaching  downward.  The  average  losses  from  limed 
fields  by  leaching  is  equal  to  from  400  to  600  pounds  of  lime- 
stone a year,  while  the  crops  would  take  only  25  to  150  pounds  a 
year.  Smaller  applications  made  more  frequently  would  require 
less  limestone,  but  would  involve  more  labor. 

When  to  Apply  Limestone 

The  lime  or  limestone  on  the  dairy  or  general  farm  may  be 
applied  either  on  land  on  which  corn  is  being  planted  or  for  oats 
or  other  grain  with  which  clover  is  being  seeded.  It  is  important 
that  the  lime  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil,  and  so  it  is  best 
to  apply  it  after  plowing;  so  that  any  further  working  of  the 
ground  in  fitting  it  for  a crop  will  mix  it  more  thoroughly  with 
the  soil. 

The  most  marked  influence  of  lime  is  on  the  clover,  but  some- 
what better  results  with  it  are  secured  when  the  lime  is  applied  a 
year  before  the  time  of  seeding  to  clover.  Still,  this  difference 
is  not  sufficient  to  cause  farmers  to  hesitate  to  apply  the  lime  with 
the  grain  crop  when  clover  is  being  seeded,  if  that  is  more  con- 
venient. 

So  far  as  possible  the  lime  should  be  applied  in  the  fall  after 
plowing,  since  the  roads  are  usually  better  for  hauling  then,  and 
time  is  not  so  pressing  as  in  the  spring  when  the  grain  is  being 
seeded.  If  two  or  three  farmers  co-operate  in  the  purchase  and 
use  of  a lime  distributor,  they  can  also  work  to  advantage  in  haul- 
ing the  ground  limestone  from  the  car  or  quarry.  By  using  one 
extra  wagon  and  having  sufficient  teams  to  keep  the  distributing 
going,  there  will  be  no  extra  shoveling  of  the  limestone.  If  this 
is  not  practicable  it  may  be  necessary  to  store  the  limestone  in  a 
shed,  and  haul  it  to  the  field  when  needed.  If  a lime  distributor 
is  to  be  used  it  is  important  that  the  ground  limestone  be  dry  or 
it  will  not  run  freely  from  the  machine. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


The  Manure  Spreader  May  be  Used 

By  putting  a thin  layer  of  manure  or  straw  in  the  spreader, 
the  limestone  can  be  placed  on  it  and  spread  at  the  right  rate. 

Often  the  limestone  can  be  hauled  during  the  fall  or  winter  to 
the  field  and  put  in  piles  so  that  it  can  be  reached  with  the 
spreader  easily  when  the  ground  is  being  fitted  for  seeding  or 
planting  in  the  spring. 


[WUHBURN  fSAWYER* 


TAYLOR. 


EAU  CLAIRE 


-VERNON* 


jmShfokS? 


LA  FAYETTE 


f;V;v;:v£ : 

Mm 

FIG.  4.— TYPES  OF  WISCONSIN  SOILS 


1 —  Glaciated  limestone  country  with  only  occasional  fields  needing  lime. 

2 —  Limestone  country  not  glaciated.  All  but  lowest  slopes  need  lime 
for  clover  and  alfalfa. 

3 —  Country  with  little  or  no  lime  carbonates  in  the  soil.  This  land 
usually  needs  lime  after  it  has  been  farmed  ten  to  fifteen  years. 


Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms 


23 


Distribution  of  Lime  In  Wisconsin 

The  eastern,  southern,  and  portions  of  the  western  part  of  the 
state  are  underlaid  by  limestone.  The  ice  during  the  Glacial 
Period  swept  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  ground  off  much 
of  the  limestone  and  mixed  it  with  the  soil;  so  that  the  need  for 
lime  in  this  part  of  the  state  is  limited  to  a small  part  of  the  area. 
It  is  usually  needed  on  dark  colored  upland  soils  from  which 
the  organic  matter  has  caused  it  to  be  leached.  Light  colored  up- 
land soils  need  lime  only  in  patches,  usually  on  the  hilltops.  The 
marsh  soils  in  this  region  have  lime  washed  down  from  the  sur- 
rounding upland. 

In  the  other  parts  of  the  state  which  have  limestone  rock,  but 
were  not  glaciated,  the  lime  in  carbonate  form  has  largely  been 
leached  from  the  surface  soil  except  near  the  base  of  limestone 
hills;  and  the  use  of  lime  is  proving  very  generally  beneficial  in 
these  parts  of  the  state. 

In  the  other  sections  of  the  state  where  there  is  no  limestone 
the  soils  are  more  or  less  acid  and  will  be  benefited  by  liming 
after  several  years  of  cropping.* 

Care  of  Manure 

The  care  and  use  of  the  manure  produced  is  the  most  impor- 
tant thing  in  the  management  of  dairy  and  stock  farms.  The 
chief  advantage  of  these  types  of  farming  is  that  the  proper  use 
of  the  manure  or  other  waste  products  makes  it  possible  to  main- 
tain productive  yields  with  comparatively  little  purchased  fer- 
tilizer. But  it  is  only  when  intelligent  care  is  taken  that  this  re- 
sult is  possible.  Much  of  the  available  plant  food  in  manure  is 
readily  soluble  in  water;  so  that  if  the  manure  is  exposed  to  the 
rain  in  flat  or  shallow  piles,  a considerable  part  of  its  value  is  lost. 
This  affects  nitrogen  and  potash  especially.  It  is  important  also 
to  recognize  that  a large  portion  of  these  element  is  in  the  liquid 
part  of  the  manure  and  that  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  use  bed- 
ding or  absorbents  freely  to  prevent  a considerable  loss.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  potash,  about  60  per  cent  of  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  liquid  manure. 


♦For  further  information  about  liming  See  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
230  Soil  Acidity  and  Liming. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  341 


If  this  potash  is  largely  conserved  and  returned  to  the  soil,  it 
will  form  a revolving  fund  to  which  there  are  sufficient  additions 
from  the  soil  itself  constantly  being  made  to  replace  unavoidable 
losses;  but  if  a large  part  of  the  potash  in  the  feeds  consumed  is 
lost  by  leaching  of  the  manure,  then  the  soil  is  not  able  to  supply 
this  element  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  permit  the  best  growth  of 
crops  so  that  fertilizers  containing  potash  would  have  to  be  used. 

The  use  of  sufficient  absorbents  such  as  oat  straw,  shredded 
cornstalks,  or  even  dried  peat,  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Ordi- 
narily the  best  practice  is  to  haul  the  manure  directly  to  the  field. 
When  this  is  not  practicable  the  pile  should  be  kept  compact,  well 
trodden,  and  moist  as  it  can  be,  through  the  use  of  a slightly 
saucer-shaped  manure  pit,  from  the  outer  sides  of  which  the 
ground  slopes  away  readily ; so  as  to  prevent  water  washing  into 
the  pit  itself.  In  this  climate  the  use  of  shelter  is  of  doubtful 
importance,  though  where  more  rains  occur,  particularly  in  the 
winter,  a shed  roof  is  very  helpful. 

The  rate  and  frequency  with  which  manure  is  applied  depends 
in  part  on  the  character  of  the  soil  on  the  farm.  On  lighter  soils 
more  frequent  applications  of  smaller  amounts  are  desirable  than 
on  heavier  soils.  Five  or  six  loads  per  acre  every  third  year  is 
desirable  on  the  sandy  loams,  while  eight  to  twelve  or  more  every 
fourth  or  even  fifth  year  may  be  used  to  advantage  on  heavier 
soils. 

Humus 

The  importance  of  as  large  a supply  as  possible  of  actively  de- 
composing vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  must  not  be  overlooked. 
It  is  through  the  decomposition  of  this  vegetable  matter  that 
chemical  reactions  are  produced  which  aid  in  making  much  of 
the  plant  food  in  the  soil  available  to  crops.  Also,  this  organic 
matter  has  an  important  influence  in  increasing  the  water  holding 
capacity  of  the  soil,  and  in  the  case  of  heavy  soils  in  improving 
their  tilth  or  working  qualities.  All  straw  and  other  roughage 
produced  should  be  worked  in  with  the  manure  and  returned  to 
the  soil,  and  whenever  possible  the  green  manuring  crops  should 
be  grown  and  plowed  under. 


■ 


I 


DIGEST 


For  the  young,  milk  is  a perfect  food.  For  the  adult  it  is  valuable 
as  a supplement  to  the  ordinary  diet.  By  its  liberal  use  the  diet  is 
made  complete  so  that  the  greatest  efficiency  and  well  being  of  the 
individual  result.  Page  1. 

Milk  is  not  a beverage  like  tea  or  coffee;  it  carries  important  food 
constituents.  In  energy  content  alone  a quart  of  milk  is  approximately 
equal  to  a pound  of  lean  steak  or  eight  eggs.  Page  5. 

Milk  contains  superior  proteins  in  contrast  to  wheat,  corn,  rice  and 
potatoes.  Whether  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  whole  milk,  skimmed 
milk,  buttermilk,  or  even  whey,  or  as  the  important  product  cheese, 
milk  furnishes  a protein  which  seems  to  be  just  what  the  body  needs. 

Page  7. 

Milk  makes  good  the  mineral  deficiencies  in  the  diet.  Grains  and 
potatoes  are  notoriously  poor  in  their  content  of  chlorine,  calcium, 
and  sodium  but  milk  makes  up  this  deficiency  in  an  excellent  manner. 

Page  8. 

Milk  also  contains  vitamine  B and  vitamine  C in  addition  to  vitamine 
A.  These  vitamines  are  both  indispensable  to  life.  Page  13. 

The  use  of  “filled  milk”  for  infant  feeding  is  intolerable  and  should 
be  prohibited  by  law.  Whole  milk  contains  vitamine  A in  large 
amounts  while  “filled  milk”  does  not.  Without  vitamine  A an  animal 
cannot  live;  lack  of  it  results  in  early  cessation  of  growth,  inflamed 
eyes,  pneumonia,  and  then  death.  Page  18. 

Vitamines  A and  B are  not  easily  destroyed  by  heat.  Milk,  there- 
fore, can  be  pasteurized,  sterilized,  and  dried  without  affecting  them. 

Page  18. 

It  is  not  safe  to  use  any  processed  milk  for  infant  feeding  for  long 
periods  of  time  without  supplementing  it  with  an  efficient  anti-scor- 
butic such  as  orange  juice  or  tomato  juice.  This  is  necessary  because 
vitamine  C is  easily  affected  by  heat  treatment.  Page  19. 

Whole  milk  is  a great  factor  of  safety  in  the  diet.  It  should  there- 
fore be  used  liberally  both  as  an  article  of  food  by  itself  and  in 
cookery.  Page  19. 


Milk  the  Best  Food 

By  H.  Steenbock  and  E.  B.  Hart 

For  countless  ages  the  varied  races  of  the  world,  doing 
many  kinds  of  work  and  living  in  different  climates,  have 
been  unconsciously  taking  part  in  a huge  food  experiment,  the  re- 
sults of  which  show  man  what  to  eat  and  what  not  to  eat.  Some 
peoples  have  lived  exclusively  on  plant  materials — seeds,  roots, 
leaves,  and  stems ; others  have  added  thereto  meat,  fish  or  eggs ; 
some  have  used  milk  from  the  cow,  goat,  mare  and  buffalo;  and 
still  others  have  lived  on  meat  with  small  additions  of  plant  ma- 
terial. 

Results  show  that  the  more  virile  peoples  which  today  are  the 
leaders  in  the  onward  march  of  civilization,  have  made  use  of 
the  animal  as  a provider  of  food,  particularly  of  milk  and  dairy 
products. 

Milk  a Perfect  Food 

For  the  young,  milk  is  a perfect  food.  It,  like  the  egg,  is  a 
product  of  nature  which  sustains  and  allows  development  of  the 
helpless  young.  In  it  are  concentrated  many  valuable  substances 
found  sparingly  in  plants  which  often  are  temporary  contribu- 
tions from  the  tissue  of  the  mother  herself  when  her  diet  is  not 
complete.  Milk  represents  the  final  result  of  ages  of  experimen- 
tation where  the  failures  have  been  buried  with  the  past. 

For  the  adult,  milk  alone  is  not  a satisfactory  food.  It  is  too 
dilute  to  be  satisfying  or  convenient;  it  is  too  low  in  iron  to  pre- 
vent anemia ; and  finally  it  is  not  bulky  enough  for  proper  elim- 
ination of  the  waste  products  from  its  digestion.  Milk  is  valu- 
able for  the  adult  as  a supplement  to  the  ordinary  diet,  however. 
By  its  liberal  use  the  diet  is  made  complete  so  that  the  greatest 
efficiency  and  well  being  of  the  individual  result. 

Things  Necessary  in  the  Diet 

At  least  five  desirable  requirements  of  a food  are  known  at 
present.  These  are:  Plenty  of  energy,  an  adequate  supply  of 

good  proteins,  suitable  mineral  matter,  a sufficiency  of  at  least 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


three  kinds  of  vitamines,  and  for  all  but  the  infant  a certain 
amount  of  roughage  or  indigestible  material.  Wheat,  which  for 
ages  has  been  a recognized  standard  for  human  food,  is  lacking 
in  two  of  these  elements  and  contains  little  or  none  of  two  of 
the  known  essential  vitamines.  In  fact,  it  is  questionable  if  wheat 
as  a food  is  superior  to  many  of  our  other  grains.  Milk,  on  the 
other  hand,  carries  most  of  these  desirable  qualities  in  a combina- 
tion unequaled  by  any  other  food. 

Importance  of  Energy 

The  energy  content  of  food  or  that  which  keeps  up  our  body 
temperature  when  we  are  cold  and  gives  us  the  power  to  do  work, 
much  as  fuel  serves  the  engine,  has  often  been  the  yardstick  for 
measuring  food  values.  “How  many  calories  of  other  foods  can 
be  purchased  for  ten  cents?”  has  been  the  slogan  of  food  adver- 
tisers in  boosting  their  products.  Food  energy  is  important  for 
we  are  measured  by  the  energy  we  can  put  into  our  mental  or 
physical  work,  and  without  a sufficient  supply  in  our  diet  under 
heavy  strain,  we  tear  down  body  tissues  to  supply  the  demand. 


FIG.  1. — PLENTY  OF  ENERGY  ALONE  IS  NOT  SUFFICIENT. 

Both  pigs  received  plenty  of  calories.  The  one  on  the  left,  weighing 
55  pounds,  had  wheat  meal  and  wheat  gluten  as  its  source  of  protein. 
The  one  on  the  right,  weighing  165  pounds,  received  wheat  meal  and 
skimmed  milk  in  approximately  the  proportions  1-1.  They  were  started 
on  their  rations  at  the  same  time. 

The  body,  however,  is  not  an  efficient  transformer  of  this  energy 
unless  it  is  kept  in  good  repair  by  other  constituents  of  the  diet 
and  to  this  the  calorie  method  pays  no  attention. 

Of  its  ability  to  promote  growth  in  the  young  the  energy  con- 
tent of  a food  gives  no  indication  except  that  with  a deficient 
intake  of  energy,  no  matter  with  what  food,  gross  deficiency  in 
intake  of  most  other  constituents  is  bound  to  be  the  case.  The 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


5 


cheapest  and  most  commonly  used  sources  of  energy  for  human 
food  such  as  wheat,  corn,  rice,  oats,  and  potatoes,  which  for  eco- 
nomical reasons  can  and  should  make  up  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the 
food  we  eat,  when  used  by  themselves  allow  little  or  no  growth 
to  take  place.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1 where  one  of  the 
young  pigs  was  given  a grain  ration  carrying  plenty  of  energy 
in  digestible  form.  Because  it  did  not  contain  enough  of  other 
essential  food  substances,  growth  was  much  .interfered  with,  but 
when  these  are  supplied  as  with  milk  the  other  energy  foods  are 
excellent.  Ordinarily  the  green  parts  of  plants  supplement  other 
foods  though  rather  imperfectly,  so  that  satisfactory,  though  not 
the  most  rapid  growth  is  obtained. 

Milk  ordinarily  is  not  looked  upon  as  an  important  energy  yield- 
ing food,  but  rather  as  a drink.  A quart  of  milk,  as  a matter 
of  fact,  is  approximately  equal  in  energy  value  to  a pound  of 
lean  steak  or  8 eggs,  so  that  its  energy  content  is  far  from  being 
insignificant. 

Most  of  the  energy  in  milk  is  in  the  milk  fat  which  is  easily 
digested  and  absorbed,  but  a large  portion  is  also  in  the  milk 
sugar.  Experiments  have  shown  that  milk  sugar  is  the  only  sugar 
which  has  a favorable  influence  on  the  digestive  tract.  When 
used  in  the  diet  in  liberal  amounts  milk  sugar  stops  the  growth 
of  bacteria  that  cause  decay  and  thus  prevents  the  poisoning  of 
the  system.  This  is  very  important  in  the  diet  of  the  infant  and 
child — both  very  sensitive  to  injurious  substances — but  even  in 
the  adult  it  may  mean  preventing  the  headaches  and  mental  slug- 
gishness so  often  resulting  from  indigestion. 

Importance  of  Protein 

Next  to  energy  the  second  important  factor  in  food  value  is 
protein.  How  often  we  see  or  hear  the  statement  “It  is  high 
in  protein,  the  great  blood  and  muscle  building  food.”  To  be 
sure  without  protein  these  tissues  cannot  be  built,  but  we  now 
know  as  a result  of  work  in  our  experiment  stations  that  proteins 
differ  tremendously  in  the  extent  to  which  the  animal  can  use 
them  for  these  purposes.  For  instance,  if  two  animals  as  near 
alike  as  possible  in  ancestry,  age,  size,  and  vigor,  are  given  one 
hundred  (100)  pounds,  respectively,  of  the  protein  of  milk  and 
the  protein  of  ordinary  grains,  there  will  be  retained  sixty-five 
(65)  pounds  of  the  milk  protein,  but  less  than  thirty  (30)  pounds  . 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


of  the  grain  protein  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  both  well 
digested  and  absorbed.  These  proteins  are  so  different  in  com- 
position that  they  cannot  be  utilized  equally  well  for  building 
body  tissues.  This  in  itself  would  not  be  a serious  matter  if 
the  animal  could  advantageously  eat  so  much  more  of  the  cheaper 
grain  protein,  but  its  capacity  to  do  this  is  so  limited  that  growth 


SOURCE  OF  PROTEIN 


milk 


ao 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 


Casein 

U/heal 

Oats 

Corn 

Corn  + 

milk 

Corn  + 
Gluten  Feed 
Whe  u 


m 


FIG.  2.— DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  NUTRITIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF 

PROTEINS. 

This  chart  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  different  kinds  of  protein 
which  a pig-  can  retain  for  growth  from  each  100  pounds  of  protein 
consumed. 


and  development  suffer.  Mixtures  of  grain  proteins  with  milk 
proteins  are  as  efficiently  retained  as  milk  protein  itself  since 
milk  contains  in  highly  concentrated  form  the  essential  substances. 
What  grain  protein  lacks  is  supplied  abundantly  by  the  milk. 

Even  the  small  amount  of  protein  in  whey  supplements  grains 
excellently.  In  the  Wisconsin  experiments  with  growing  pigs, 
where  this  by-product  of  the  cheese  industry  was  fed  at  the  rate 
of  four  (4)  pounds  daily  as  a supplement  to  a corn  meal  gluten 
feed  ration,  47  per  cent  of  the  total  proteins  fed  were  stored  by 
the  animals.  Without  the  whey  proteins,  which  were  but  16  per 
cent  of  the  entire  protein  mixture,  only  30  per  cent  of  storage 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


/ 

resulted.  These  figures  are  significant.  Certainly  our  stockmen 
cannot  afford  to  allow  whey  to  be  run  into  the  gutter  or  creek  to 
turn  into  a vile  smelling  waste  product.  It  should  be  saved  and 
fed  to  the  stock. 

Milk  in  any  form,  whether  whole,  skimmed,  or  as  buttermilk 
or  even  whey,  and  as  the  important  product  cheese  in  all  its  dif- 


PIG.  3.— HOW  THE  PROTEINS  OF  MILK  INFLUENCE  GROWTH. 

Corn  and  clover  or  wheat  and  clover  are  not  deficient  in  energy,  miner- 
als or  vitamines,  but  the  protein  mixture  is  not  as  good  as  when  milk 
is  added.  This  picture  illustrates  what  J.  G.  Halpin,  of  this  station,  has 
done  with  baby  chicks  of  the  same  hatch.  Those  on  the  right  received 
corn  and  fresh  green  clover;  those  on  the  left  were  given  corn,  clover 
and  skimmilk.  The  average  weight  at  the  same  age  was  respectively  84 
grams  and  260  grams. 


ferent  forms,  is  a superior  source  of  protein.  This  it  not  because 
of  the  amount  of  protein — for  the  milk  products  listed  differ  too 
widely — but  because  the  protein  seems  to  be  just  what  the  body 
needs  to  build  and  repair  its  tissues. 

What  applies  to  milk  protein  in  a large  measure  also  applies 
to  meat  and  egg  proteins  for  they  have  helped  enormously  in  the 
history  of  mankind  in  maintaining  the  human  race  under  other- 
wise unfavorable  conditions.  But  at  present  and,  no  doubt,  as 
she  will  in  the  future,  the  dairy  cow  stands  in  a class  by  herself 
as  an  economical  producer  of  excellent  protein.  This  is  true  be- 
cause she,  of  all  animals,  can  use  to  best  advantage  the  proteins 
of  roughage  such  as  hays,  corn  stover,  and  silage  which  are  too 
bulky  for  human  food. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


Importance  of  Minerals 

When  milk  is  added  to  a grain  ration  not  all  of  its  beneficial 
action  is  due  to  the  betterment  of  the  protein  mixture.  Part  of 
it  is  due  to  the  improvement  of  the  mineral  intake,  especially 
that  of  sodium,  chlorine,  and  calcium,  in  which  grains  are  marked- 
ly deficient.  As  a matter  of  fact,  on  our  grain  rations  it  is  this 
very  lack  of  minerals,  which  especially  build  up  the  skeleton  and 


FIG.  4. — PLANT  OILS  DEFICIENT  IN  VITAMINE  A. 


The  rat  on  the  left  received  5 per  cent  of  cottonseed  oil  and  the  one  on 
the  right  1.5  per  cent  of  butter  fat  instead  of  cottonseed  oil;  otherwise 
the  rations  were  alike  and  the  rats  were  of  the  same  age.  The  plant  oils 
lack  vitamine  A without  which  growth  cannot  proceed;  yet  this  vita- 
mine  is  contained  abundantly  in  whole  milk,  eggs  and  the  leafy  portion 
of  plants. 

the  blood,  that  becomes  evident  before  the  poor  quality  of  the 
proteins.  Unless  minerals  are  present  in  sufficient  amount, 
growth  is  impossible.  So  important  is  this  adjustment  that  in 
different  species  of  animals  where  the  infant  young  normally 
grow  at  different  rates,  the  rapidity  of  development  follows  in 
the  same  order  as  the  percentage  of  mineral  matter  in  the  milks. 
Here  again  is  an  adjustment  of  nature  to  make  milk  a perfect 
food  and  fortunate  indeed  is  man  that  in  adult  life  he  can  avail 
himself  of  the  milk  of  animals  as  a food,  perhaps  not  exactly 
balanced  to  his  needs,  but  more  balanced  than  anything  available 
in  the  plant  kingdom. 

Vitamine  A (Fat  Soluble  Vitamine) 

In  the  last  decade  there  has  been  forced  upon  the  attention  of 
the  public  the  fact  that  energy,  as  fat  and  carbohydrate,  good 
protein  and  mineral  matter  are  not  the  only  things  required  by 
an  animal  in  its  ration.  If  a mixture  of  these  constituents  is 
made  from  pure  ingredients  and  fed  to  a young  animal,  it' will 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


9 


stop  growing  and  die  early  from  various  complications.  If  fed 
to  a mature  animal  sooner  or  later,  depending  upon  the  species 
and  its  nutritive  condition,  old  age  will  set  in  prematurely,  in- 
fections will  occur  and  death  will  follow  rapidly.  This  situa- 
tion is  caused  by  a lack  of  many  substances  collectively  called 
vitamines,  from  vita,  meaning  life.  Individually  for  want  of  a 
better  system  they  are  named  in  the  order  of  their  discovery  after 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 


FIG  5. — OLEOMARGARINE  VS.  BUTTER  FAT  AS  A SOURCE  OF’ 
VITAMINE  A. 

Two  rats  of  the  same  age  and  same  sex.  The  rat  on  the  left  received 
as  its  source  of  vitamine  A 5 per  cent  of  the  ration  from  a so-called 
butter  substitute,  while  the  rat  on  the  right  received  as  the  source  of 
this  vitamine  5 per  cent  of  the  ration  as  butter  fat.  Note  the  small  size 
(109  grams)  and  the  sore  and  infected  eyes  of  the  rat  on  the  left  as  com- 
pared with  the  vigorous  condition,  bright  eyes  and  larger  size  (262 
grams)  of  the  rat  on  the  right. 

Vitamines  are  not  as  yet  known  as  pure  chemical  compounds 
which  has  often  caused  the  skeptical  to  ask:  “Well,  how  do  you 

know  that  there  are  such  things?’*  “Is  it  not  something  else 
that  is  responsible  for  the  nutritive  failure?”  As  a matter  of 
fact,  the  reason  that  scientists  are  so  certain  of  the  existence  of 
vitamines,  is  that  lack  of  any  one  of  them  in  the  diet  produces 
a perfectly  definite  reaction  in  the  animal.  Actually  it  is  not 
necessary  to  go  far  to  find  parallel  situations  in  other  fields  of 
science.  For  instance,  no  one  will  deny  the  fact  that  we  do  not 
as  yet  know  what  electricity  is  or  what  light  is,  and  yet  they  are 
dealt  with  as  separate  phenomena  to  the  great  advancement  of 
civilization.  It  is  only  a question  of  time  before  the  nature  of 
vitamines  will  be  found  out. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


When  Vitamine  A is  lacking  in  the  diet  of  the  young,  growth 
erases  just  as  soon  as  the  reserve  supply  of  it  stored  in  the  body 
is  exhausted.  This  may  be  a matter  of  months  in  the  infant,  but 
no  exact  data  on  this  point  are  available.  When  growth  ceases, 
or  even  before,  the  power  to  resist  infections  gives  way,  the  eyes 
become  red  and  swollen,  filled  with  fluid,  then  with  pus  and  finally 
the  surface  of  the  eyeball  is  left  eroded  and  scarred,  often  induc- 
ing permanent  blindness.  In  other  cases  the  lungs  become  in- 
fected, causing  a pneumonia  which  usually  ends  in  death. 

Vitamine  A was  first  discovered  in  solution  in  fats,  which 
caused  it  to  be  known  as  the  fat  soluble  vitamine.  Osborne  and 
Mendel  of  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  and  McCollum, 
formerly  of  this  Station,  interested  in  a study  of  the  things  that 
an  animal  needs,  found  independently  that  butter  contains  some- 
thing which  lard  and  vegetable  fats  do  not  and  that  this  sub- 
stance was  absolutely  necessary  for  animal  life.  It  was  this  dis- 
covery that  caused  so  much  attention  to  be  given  to  the  superior 
value  of  butter  and  its  source,  namely,  milk.  Now  we  know  that 
there  are  other  sources  of  this  vitamine.  It  is  found  in  the  green 
parts  of  plants,  in  cabbage,  in  eggs,  in  beef  fats,  in  ripe  peas,  in 
yellow  corn,  in  yellow  sweet  potatoes,  and  in  the  highly  pig- 
mented carrot.  But  the  fact  remains  that  it  is  perfectly  possible 
for  man,  through  indifference  in  uncivilized  regions,  for  eco- 
nomic causes  and  during  starvation — as  was  so  prevalent  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  in  the  last  decade — to  select  a diet  supposedly 
satisfactory,  but  very  deficient  in  vitamine  A.  Here  is  where 
the  value  of  milk  and  its  products  comes  in.  The  cow  and  the 
goat,  able  to  exist  on  grasses  and  hays,  not  directly  consumable 
by  man,  concentrate  this  vitamine  and  put  it  out  in  their  milk 
in  a form  available  to  man.  Meat,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  so 
rich  in  it. 

From  the  standpoint  of  dollars  and  cents  as  well  as  from  the 
standpoint  of  maintenance  of  man’s  vigor  and  health,  a word 
should  be  said  in  regard  to  the  dairyman’s  competition  with  the 
oleomargarine  manufacturer.  Oleomargarine,  as  is  well  known, 
is  produced  from  the  hardened  vegetable  oils  or  the  plant  fats 
themselves  mixed  with  a liquid  oil  obtained  by  pressure  from  lard, 
together  with  beef  fats.  This  mixture  in  additionds  often  mixed 
with  some  butter  and  then  churned  with  milk  to  give  it  a butter 
flavor. 

Experiments  have  shown  repeatedly  that  plant  fats  are  totally 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


11 


FIG.  6.— BUTTER  FAT  WILL  PREVENT  RICKETS.  . 

Two  dogs  from  the  same  litter  brought  up  on  cooked  rolled  oats, 
cooked  corn  meal,  casein,  salts  and  7 ounces  of  skimmed  milk  daily.  The 
upper  dog  received  in  addition  J ounce  of  butter  daily ; the  lower  did 
not.  The  former  was  healthy  and  active  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  origin- 
ally it  was  an  inferior  dog  and  had  lost  one  foot  by  accident.  In  17 
weeks  it  increased  in  weight  from  870  to  4,290  grams.  The  lower  dog 
was  severely  afflicted  with  rickets  and  died  two  weeks  after  the  picture 
was  taken.  It  originally  was  in  excellent  condition,  but  increased  in 
weight  only  from  1,640  to  3,250  grams. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


free  from  vitamine  A,  and  that  most  body  fats  of  animals  con- 
tain but  small  amounts  of  it,  although  there  are  some  exceptions. 
Fats  in  internal  organs  such  as  the  kidney  and  liver  are  very 
potent  as  sources  of  this  vitamine  and  occasionally  the  beef  fats, 
especially  the  highly  colored  yellow  ones,  are  as  rich  as  butter. 


FIG.  7. — SKIMMED  MILK  AFFECTS  INFANT  WELFARE. 

This  child  of  14  months  is  again  able  to  see  with  one  eye  after  treat- 
ment with  a diet  of  fresh  milk,  milk  pudding  and  cod  liver  oil — all  good 
sources  of  vitamine  A.  Previously  it  had  received  only  centrifuged  milk 
with  rusks  and  other  foods,  all  poor  in  vitamine  A.  This  caused  its  eyes 
to  be  inflamed,  resulting  in  permanent  blindness  of  the  left  eye.  (Taken 
from  Journal  of  Hygiene  relating  the  experience  of  Bloch  iri  Denmark.) 


As  the  fats  from  the  internal  organs  are  not  used  commercially 
and  as  beef  fats  make  up  only  part  of  the  final  product,  the  result 
is  that  even  the  best  of  oleos  are  not  to  be  compared  with  good 
butter.  This  criticism  applies  even  more  forcibly  to  the  nut  oleos 
which  pride  themselves  on  not  being  contaminated  with  animal 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


13 


fats.  The  nut  oleos  are  the  greatest  menace  to  the  dairy  indus- 
try because  of  their  cheapness  and  the  low  price  possible  in  the 
sale  of  the  product.  Furthermore,  by  their  manufacture,  the  use 
of  animal  fats  is  decreased  and  the  livestock  industry  loses  the 
benefits  which  the  oleo  manufacturers  claim  to  have  given  it  by 
the  extension  of  their  activities.  This  latter  is,  however,  a ques- 
tionable matter. 

Although  fats  other  than  butter  are  just  as  valuable  sources  of 
energy,  it  is  a question  whether  or  not  the  peoples  of  the  world 
who  have  reached  such  a high  degree  of  civilization  subsisting 
on  a dairy  diet  can  adopt  a radical  change  in  their  diet  and  de- 
crease its  vitamine  content  with  safety. 

With  adults  on  restricted  rations,  observations  have  been  made 
which  suggest  that  cases  of  vitamine  A deficiency,  where  the  de- 
ficiency has  attained  a sufficient  severity  to*  cause  eye  symptoms, 
do  occasionally  occur.  That  such  is  the  case  with  infants,  where 
given  little  or  no  milk,  there  is  no  longer  any  question. 

Mori,  a Japanese  physician,  in  1904,  a decade  before  anything 
was  known  of  vitamine  A,  described  over  a thousand  cases  of 
eye  disease  among  children,  which  he  cured  by  giving  them  chicken 
livers,  an  organ  now  known  to  contain  vitamine  A.  Later  Bloch, 
a Danish  physician,  observed  many  cases  of  the  same  trouble 
among  peasants,  in  rural  districts  near  Copenhagen,  where  it  be- 
came the  practice  to  sell  the  butter  fat  produced  on  their  farms, 
giving  skimmilk  instead  of  whole  milk  to  the  children.  (See  fig- 
ure 7.)  Here  the  disease  when  it  had  not  progressed  too  far  was 
promptly  cured  by  replacing  the  whole  milk  in  the  diet  or  by 
giving  cod  liver  oil.  Both  of  these  doctors  knew  nothing  about 
vitamines  and  attributed  the  benefits  to  the  fats  themselves,  but 
Monrad  later  pointed  out  that  vitamines  were  probably  concerned. 
Of  this  there  now  is  no  longer  any  question,  for  not  only  is  the 
effect  not  produced  by  all  fats,  but  those  fats  such  as  butter  and 
cod  liver  oil  which  are  active  in  high  degree  can  be  completely 
destroyed  by  making  soaps  of  them  without  destroying  the  vita- 
mine. 

Vitamine  B (Water  Soluble  Vitamine) 

Years  ago,  when  modern  milling  methods  were  first  used  in 
the  orient,  there  became  prevalent  a disease  known  as  beri-beri. 
Large  numbers  of  people  in  Japan  and  the  Philippines,  in  China, 
in  India,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  came  down  with  this  malady. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


It  is  characterized  by  extreme  loss  of  weight,  accompanied  by  a 
dropsical  condition  and  some  nervous  disturbances.  This  epi- 
demic which  scientists  could  not  account  for  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  people  in  their  desire  to  use  rice  without  the  seed  coats, 
used  modern  machines  which  removed  not  only  the  outer  coats, 
but  also  the  germ  and  with  that  most  of  vitamine  B.  With  the 
crude  native  mills  that  had  not  been  entirely  possible.  As  the 


FIG.  8. — EFFECT  OF  A DEFICIENCY  OF  VITAMINE  B. 

A pigeon  showing  a neck  spasm  in  an  acute  attack  of  beri-beri  result- 
ing from  the  consumption  of  a ration  of  polished  rice  which  is  deficient 
in  the  vitamine  B. 


diet  of  these  peoples  is  naturally  very  restricted,  consisting  main- 
ly of  rice  supplemented  with  some  fish,  the  amount  of  vitamine 
B in  the  ration  had  been  reduced  to  the  danger  point.  Such  also 
was  the  case  with  the  rations  of  the  British  colonial  troops  in  the 
siege  of  Kut.  Even  in  Labrador,  berLberi  appeared  among  the 
fisher  folk  through  their  dieting  too  extensively  on  patented 
wheat  flour,  for  from  wheat  flour,  as  from  the  ordinary  polished 
rice  on  the  market,  most  of  vitamine  B has  been  removed  in  the 
milling  process. 

Experiments  with  small  animals  such  as  the  rat  showed  that 
those  foods  which  caused  beri-beri  in  the  human  also  caused 
similar  symptoms  with  them  and  did  not  allow  growth  to  take 
place.  In  man  with  his  relatively  slow  rate  of  development  this 
effect  on  growth  had  not  been  so  evident.  Fortunately  for  ani- 
mal life,  vitamine  B is  not  limited  in  occurrence. 

It  does  not  occur  in  fats,  sugar  or  starch,  but  is  found  abun- 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


15 


FIG.  9. — EFFECT  OF  MILK  PRODUCED  ON  A RATION  LOW  IN 
VITAMINE  B. 

This  rat  received  as  a natural  food  only  10  per’ cent  of  the  ration  as 
barley  grain.  The  rest  of  the  ration  consisted  of  purified  materials. 
The  supply  of  vitamine  B was  sufficient  for  her  own  maintenance,  but 
not  enough  for  both  herself  and  an  abundant  supply  in  the  milk.  The 
young  show  the  effect  of  this  shortage.  They  grew  rapidly  for  a time, 
but  suddenly  lost  weight  and  showed  periods  of  great  excitabiliy.  They 
had  a rolling  gait  and  often  suffered  from  convulsions.  This  class  of 
vitamines  is  present  in  sufficient  amount  in  milk  as  normally  produced 
from  natural  foods. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


dantly  in  all  our  unmilled  grains,  in  potatoes,  milk,  eggs,  and  to 
a lesser  extent  in  meat  and  the  green  parts  of  plants. 

Except  in  unusual  circumstances,  it  is  not  especially  imperative 
for  man  to  look  for  an  efficient  carrier  of  vitamine  B to  supple- 
ment his  diet.  Milk  is  not  especially  high  in  vitamine  B,  as  ounce 
for  ounce  it  does  not  differ  much  from  grains.  In  fact,  when 
diluted  with  water  1 to  1,  for  infants’  use  in  place  of  mother’s 
milk,  not  enough  of  this  vitamine  will  be  furnished.  ' This  can 
be  overcome  by  using  water  extract  of  grains  in  place  of  water. 

Like  vitamine  A,  vitamine  B cannot  be  built  by  the  animal, 
but  ultimately  must  come  from  plant  sources.  When  the  diet  of 
the  nursing  mother  is  deficient  in  it,  her  milk  will  be  abnormally 
low  in  vitamine.  The  effect  of  this  becomes  evident  as  symp- 
toms of  beri-beri  are  produced  in  the  young.  (See  figure  9.) 

Vitamine  C (Anti-scorbutic  Vitamine) 

Dating  primarily  from  the,  time  when  man  went  on  long  sea 
voyages,  forcing  him  to  exist  on  non-perishable  foods  such  as 
dried  biscuits  and  salt  pork,  there  has  been  recognized  a disease 
known  as  scurvy.  It  is  indicated  by  bleeding  from  the  mouth 
and  nose,  swelling  of  the  gums  and  tongue,  loosening  of  the 
teeth,  discoloration  of  the  skin  and  extreme  depression  in  spirits. 
As  a cure  and  preventative  there  has  been  used  with  great  suc- 
cess fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  and  especially  the  juice  of  lemons 
and  oranges.  We  now  know  through  experiments  carried  out 
on  the  guinea  pig  and  monkey  that  cure  and  prevention  are  due 
to  a third  vitamine  called  vitamine  C or  the  anti-scorbutic  vita- 
mine. It  is  very  easily  destroyed  by  heat,  so  that  canned  ma- 
terials with  the  exception  of  tomato  are  usually  free  from  it. 
Potatoes  and  vegetables  if  not  cooked  too  long  still  contain  some 
of  it.  In  cooked  meat  it  is  mostly  destroyed. 

Raw  milk  is  an  uncertain  source  of  the  anti-scorbutic,  but  for 
the  infant  it  usually  has  sufficient  as  shown  by  the  unfrequent 
cases  of  scurvy  where  it  is  used  in  the  infant’s  diet.  By  the  use 
of  the  guinea  pig,  which  is  very  susceptible  to  scurvy,  much  more 
so  than  the  child,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  milk  of 
cows  on  pasture  is  more  than  twice  as  rich  in  vitamine  C as  that 
of  stall  fed  animals  even  when  getting  silage.  This  variation 
in  vitamine  content  is  partly  responsible  for  scurvy  in  spring  and 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


17 


late  winter,  rather  than  in  summer.  (See  Fig.  10.)  Flere  again 
the  milk  cow  shows  herself  to  be  an  efficient  concentrator  and 
therefore  a good  provider  of  food  for  man. 


Milk  Processing 

With  the  widespread  attempt,  as  an  economic  proposition,  to 


FIG.  10—  EFFECT  OF  SUMMER  AS  COMPARED  WITH  WINTER  FEED 
ON  VITAMINE  C IN  COW’S  MILK. 

Both  guinea  pigs  received  half  an  ounce  of  milk  in  addition  to  their 
ration  of  alfalfa,  oats  and  salt.  The  upper  one,  entirely  normal,  received 
the  milk  of  cows  on  a timothy,  blue  grass,  clover  pasture.  The  lower 
one,  afflicted  with  scurvy,  received  the  milk  from  cows  fed  on  grains, 

silage  and  hays. 


extend  the  use  of  milk  in  its  various  forms,  milk  has  been 
skimmed,  pasteurized,  sterilized,  dried  and  condensed.  The  ques- 
tion, therefore,  as  to  how  these  processes  affect  the  nutritive  value 
of  milk  may  well  be  raised. 

Skimming  milk  removes  the  greater  part  of  vitamine  A so  that 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  342 


skimmed  milk  does  not  provide  an  animal  with  a sufficiency  of  this 
necessary  food  constituent.  The  same  criticism  is,  of  course,  to 
be  applied  to  the  so-called  “filled”  milk. 

“Filled”  milk  is  an  evaporated  milk  from  which,  previous  to 
evaporation,  all  the  butter  fat  has  been  removed  and  then  an 
equivalent  amount  of  vegetable  fat  such  as  cocoanut  oil  is  mixed 
in.  As  most  of  the  vitamine  A is  removed  with  the  butter 
fat  and  then  a fat  free  from  the  vitamine  substituted,  there  re- 
sults a product  deprived  of  one  of  the  principal  virtues  for  which 
milk  is  to  be  recommended.  • 

The  use  of  “filled”  milk  for  infant  feeding  is  intolerable  and 
should  be  prohibited  by  law,  but  as  many  mothers  of  limited 
means  do  not  know  the  dangers  of  “filled”  milk  they  are  bound 
to  use  it  when  available.  In  the  interest  of  public  welfare  it  is 
even  desirable  to  entirely  prevent  its  sale  and  manufacture.  Cer- 
tainly the  claim  of  the  manufacturer  to  the  legal  right  to  manu- 
facture his  product — even  if  correctly  labeled — ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  produce  a situation  liable  to  deprive  infants  of  their 
right  to  normal  growth  and  health. 

Evaporation  of  whole  milk  with  or  without  sterilization,  as  in 
the  making  of  sweetened  condensed  milk,  does  not  destroy  vita- 
mine A.  It  is  a comparatively  stable  substance,  as  even  the  prep- 
aration of  dried  whole  milk  leads  to  but  little  if  any  loss  of  the 
original  value  of  the  milk  in  this  essential. 

Vitamine  B is  a very  stable  compound.  Nothing  that  can  be 
done  to  milk  while  it  still  preserves  much  of  its  taste  and  ap- 
pearance is  liable  to  decrease  the  amount  of  this  vitamine.  Steril- 
izing, drying,  and  condensing  milk  do  not  affect  the  ultimate 
content  of  vitamine  B. 

Vitamine  C,  about  which  we  should  be  chiefly  concerned  when 
evaluating  processed  milk  for  its  vitamine  content,  is  partly  de- 
stroyed by  pasteurization,  especially  where  the  milk  is  agitated 
and  aeration  results.  Sterilization  under  similar  conditions  de- 
stroys it  completely.  Even  the  aging  of  milk  causes  this  vita- 
mine to  disappear.  As  a result,  unsweetened  canned  milk  where 
we  have  a combined  intensified  effect  of  these  factors,  no  longer 
contains  any  vitamine  C.  In  sweetened  condensed  milk,  how- 
ever, heat  treatment  and  exposure  to  air  is  minimized  so  that 
some  of  the  vitamine  is  preserved.  Milk  powders  differ  con- 
siderably. Those  dried  by  the  spray  process  contain  little  if  any 


Milk  the  Best  Food 


19 


vitamine  C,  while  those  dried  by  the  roller  process  are  fairly 
efficient.  Present  information  indicates  that  it  is  not  safe  to  use 
any  processed  milk  for  infant  feeding  for  long  periods  of  time 
without  supplementing  it  with  an  efficient  anti-scorbutic  such  as 
orange  juice  or  tomato  juice. 

Need  for  Milk  in  the  Diet 

Because  of  the  nutritive  value  of  whole  milk  and  its  products, 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the  purchasing  public  realize  the  impor- 
tant place  the  dairy  industry  should  occupy  in  the  life  of  this 
nation. 

Whole  milk  is  worth  more  than  its  energy  value ; it  is  the  great 
factor  of  safety  as  a supplement  to  our  grains  and  makes  good 
their  deficiencies.  It  should  be  used  not  only  liberally  in  the 
feeding  of  children,  but  also  in  cookery. 


DIGEST 


The  transmissible  diseases  of  plants  and  animals  spread  more  rap- 
idly as  the  commerce  in  plant  and  animals  increases.  Diseased  plants 
and  animals  form  a constantly  increasing  percentage  of  the  total  num- 
ber transferred  as  the  infected  centers  become  more  numerous. 

Pages  3 to  4. 

Johne’s  disease  is  not  wide  spread  at  present,  but  may  become  so. 
Now  is  the  time  to  fight  it.  Page  4. 

Intermittent  diarrhea  and  emaciation  mark  Johne’s  disease.  It  af- 
fects cattle  primarily.  Pages  4 to  5. 

In  all  the  chief  cattle  raising  countries  Johne’s  disease  is  found.  In 

some  it  causes  considerable  losses.  Pages  5 to  8. 

An  organism  that  grows  in  the  intestinal  wall  causes  Johne’s  dis- 
ease. The  effect  on  the  animal  is  to  produce  a progressive  emaciation. 
A thickened  and  much  wrinkled  intestinal  wall  is  the  most  marked 
lesion  of  the  disease.  Pages  8 to  13. 

The  organism  causing  the  disease  is  brought  into  a herd  in  the  body 
of  a diseased  animal.  If  the  disease  is  far  advanced  in  any  of  the  af- 
fected animals,  the  organism  will  be  given  off  in  great  numbers  and 
the  disease  will  spread  rapidly  in  the  herd.  Pages  13  to  15. 

The  disease  can  be  detected  in  the  animal  by  the  use  of  Johnin 
which  causes  a temporary  rise  in  temperature  in  affected  animals  and 
has  no  effect  on  non-affected  animals.  Pages  15  to  19. 

Repeated  tests  of  entire  herds  and  removal  of  reacting  animals  may 
free  the  herds  from  Johne’s  disease.  Pages  19  to  20. 

An  animal  may  be  affected  for  a number  of  years  and  show  no  symp- 
toms. The  calves  of  affected  animals  are  undoubtedly  free  from  the 
disease  at  the  time  of  birth.  Pages  20  to  21. 


Johne’sDisease 


B.  A.  Beach  and  E.  G.  Hastings 


EVERY  FARMER  REALIZES  that  diseases  both  in  his 
crops  and  herds  are  more  numerous  than  a generation  ago. 
He  may  conclude  from  this  observation  that  new  diseases 
are  appearing  in  the  world.  So  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes 
the  conclusion  is  undoubtedly  a false  one,  but  something  which 
is  quite  akin  to  the  arising  of  new  diseases  in  its  effect  on  the 
farmer’s  business  is  taking  place.  This  is  the  continued  spread 
both  of  plant  and  animal  diseases  which  have  previously  been 
confined  to  limited  areas  of  the  world.  Bovine  tuberculosis  is  an 
example.  No  one  knows  where  or  when  it  originated,  but  it  is 
definitely  known  that  through  the  export  of  cattle  from  north- 
western Europe  during  the  last  eight  or  ten  decades  the  disease 
has  been  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  A considerable  part 
of  this  distribution  took  place  before  much  was  known  concern- 
ing tuberculosis,  and  especially  concerning  its  detection.  The  task 
of  eradicating  bovine  tuberculosis  seems  to  many,  one  that  cannot 
be  accomplished  on  account  of  its  present  world-wide  distribu- 
tion. 


Avian  tuberculosis  is  an  example  of  a disease,  the  spread  of 
which  has  taken  place  in  very  recent  years.  It  was  not  known 
to  occur  in  Wisconsin  before  1906.  At  present  thousands  of  the 
flocks  of  the  state  are  tubercular.  If  the  knowledge  now  possessed 
concerning  both  bovine  and  avian  tuberculosis  had  been  available 
and  had  been  applied  while  these  diseases  were  still  localized, 
neither  would  be  a serious  problem  for  the  present-day  farmer. 

Since  the  organisms  causing  any  particular  disease  are  carried 
from  place  to  place  primarily  in  the  diseased  animal  or  plant  or 
in  their  products,  it  is  evident  that  with  the  increase  in  number 
of  animals  and  plants  shipped  from  one  part  of  the  world  to  an- 
other or  transferred  from  place  to  place  in  a more  limited  area, 
the  spread  of  any  disease  gains  impetus.  If  there  are  few  in- 
fected centers,  the  great  part  of  the  animals  and  plants  transferred 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


will  be  free  from  the  disease.  As  the  centers  of  infection  in- 
crease, a greater  part  of  the  individuals  transferred  will  be  dis- 
eased and  hence,  again,  the  spread  of  the  trouble  will  be  accentu- 
ated. 

Johne’s  disease,  the  subject  of  this  bulletin,  is  one  that  is  not  at 
all  widespread  in  Wisconsin  or  in  any  part  of  our  country  at 
present.  It  does  occur,  however,  and  as  the  years  go  by  it  will 
become  more  and  more  common  and  will  place  a greater  tax  on 
the  cattle  industry  unless  some  consideration  is  given  to  it  by 
those  engaged  in  the  raising  and  sale  of  cattle.  It  is  not  a new 
disease,  but  one  which  until  recent  years  was  confounded  with 
other  diseases.  Its  cause  was  discovered  in  1895.  The  disease 
was  first  found  in  this  country  in  Pennsylvania  in  1908.  The 
purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  call  it  to  the  attention  of  those  in- 
terested in  the  cattle  industry  in  order  that  steps  may  be  taken 
to  protect  the  herds  still  free  from  it  and  that  the  few  herds  now 
affected  may  be  freed  from  the  disease.  A little  work  done  now 
may  have  far  more  effect  than  a hundred  times  as  much  a decade 
lienee,  if  inferences  can  be  drawn  from  the  experience  of  other 
countries  with  this  disease. 

The  successful  fight  against  any  transmissible  disease  neces- 
sitates some  means  of  detecting  it  at  such  an  early  stage  in  its 
development  that  the  affected  animal  can  be  removed  before  the 
disease-producing  organism  has  spread  to  other  animals.  Such 
methods  are  now  available  for  Johne’s  disease.  They  are  herein 
described  and  the  experience  which  the  Experiment  Station  has 
had  with  them  is  presented.  The  struggle  against  this  disease 
as  against  any  other  is  one  which  the  breeders  must  carry  on,  each 
for  himself  with  such  aid  as  the  state  may  be  able  to  give. 

Characteristics 

The  disease  affects  cattle  and,  in  rare  instances,  sheep  and 
goats.  It  has  been  found  in  deer.  The  affected  animals 
lose  flesh  very  slowly  until  they  become  virtually  walking  skele- 
tons. The  unthrifty  condition  of  animals,  in  spite  of  abundant 
feed,  is  occasioned  in  part  by  this  disease.  Tuberculosis  is  an- 
other cause  of  the  condition  that  makes  the  common  English 
term,  “piner”,  a fitting  one.  The  term  “canner”,  referring  to 
the  use  which  is  made  of  the  meat  in  the  packing  houses,  is 
the  more  common  American  term  applied  to  sick  emaciated 
animals.  It  is  believed  that  once  Johne’s  disease  is  under  way 


Johne's  Disease 


5 


in  the  animal,  death  is  certain  to  result  from  it.  The  progress 
is  so  slow  that  its  contagious  nature  is  usually  not  recognized 
since  one  usually  thinks  of  a transmissible  disease  as  progressing 
rapidly  to  death  or  retrogressing  quickly  to  recovery. 

The  disease  is  known  under  a number  of  names.  The  one 
used  in  this  bulletin  is  the  most  common  and  owes  its  origin 
to  the  discoverer  of  the  organism.  Paratuberculosis  is  used  by 


FIG.  I. — AN  INFECTED  ANIMAL. 
This  animal  reacted  to  Johnin. 


some  writers,  chronic  bacterial  dysentery  by  others,  while  in 
Norway  the  trouble  is  known  as  Laaland’s  disease,  because  of 
its  prevalence  on  the  Island  of  Laaland,  a part  of  Denmark. 
The  common  Swiss  name  for  the  disease  is  “Kaltbrandigkeit”, 
which  signifies  a thirst  without  fever.  The  thirst  is  due  to  the 
watery  condition  of  the  feces.  In  England  and  Scotland  the 
disease  as  it  occurs  in  sheep  is  called  scrapie. 

Occurrence 

The  disease  causes  considerable  losses  in  several  European 
countries.  No  definite  data  as  to  the  extent  of  the  losses  are 
available.  In  Denmark  the  disease  was  first  recognized  in  1904 
by  B.  Bang  in  two  cows  of  the  red  Danish  breed,  the  cattle  most 
widely  kept  by  Danish  farmers  The  disease  has  also  been  found 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


in  the  Jutland  breed,  while  it  is  especially  important  in  the  Jersey 
herds  of  Denmark.  Its  widespread  occurrence  in  this  breed 
gave  rise  to  the  statement  by  B.  Bang  that  the  future  of  this  breed 
of  cattle  in  Denmark  depends  on  the  ability  to  eradicate  Johne’s 
disease  from  the  herds.  In  Denmark  3.5  per  cent  of  the  total 
value  of  the  cattle  insured  by  one  company  was  paid  yearly  for 
losses  due  to  this  disease.  It  has  caused  great  losses  in  Switzer- 
land, and  in  Germany,  and  is  quite  widespread  in  England  and  in 
the  Channel  Islands  It  has  been  estimated  by  those  most  famil- 
iar with  the  conditions  in  England  that  1 per  cent  of  the  cattle 
are  affected.  In  Birmingham,  England,  on  the  average  six 
cases  are  found  in  each  1,000  cattle  killed  in  the  municipal 
abbatoir.  It  seems  quite  probable  that  the  occurrence  of  the 
disease  in  the  Jersey  herds  of  Denmark  reflects  the  condition 
in  the  island  of  Jersey.  In  our  experience  some  of  the  Guernsey 
cattle  imported  from  the  island  of  Guernsey  have  been  found 
affected. 

The  trouble  was  first  recognized  in  this  country  by  Dr.  Leonard 
Pearson  of  Philadelphia  in  1908.  Little  can  be  said  of  the  ex- 
tent to  which  the  disease  occurs  here.  It  has  been  reported  to 
us  from  eight  states.  It  seems  probable  that  the  conditions  in 
other  of  the  important  dairy  states  will  be  much  the  same  as  in 
Wisconsin.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  data  that  will  enable  one 
to  make  even  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  affected  herds  in 
Wisconsin.  Definite  knowledge  of  its  occurrence  in  18  herds  in 
13  different  localities  has  been  obtained.  It  is  certain  that  the 
disease  is  more  widespread  than  our  present  data  indicate.  The 
disease  is  not  recognized  by  many  practicing  veterinarians.  Op- 
portunity to  make  a post  mortem  examination  is  rare  in  the  case 
of  this  disease,  due  to  its  slowly  progressing  nature  and  the  op- 
portunity thus  presented  to  the  owner  to  sell  the  animal  for 
slaughter. 

The  prevalence  of  the  disease  is  not  such  as  to  cause  great 
alarm,  except  that  it  is  likely  to  be  present  in  pure  bred  herds 
from  which  animals  are  being  sold  in  great  numbers.  A few 
such  distributing  centers  may  in  a few  years  infect  many  herds 
and  the  disease  will  thus  spread  with  a constantly  increasing 
rapidity  unless  more  attention  is  paid  to  it  than  is  done  at  present. 


Johne's  Disease 


7 


The  extent  to  which  the  disease  may  spread  in  a herd  is  shown 
by  the  results  of  O.  Bang  who  examined  a considerable  number 
of  herds,  using  tuberculin  prepared  with  the  avian  tubercle  bacil- 
lus. The  danger  of  confusing  tuberculosis  and  Johne’s  disease 
was  avoided  by  testing  only  cows  that  had  not  reacted  to  ordin- 
ary tuberculin.  Table  I.  was  compiled  from  the  data  collected  by 
Bang.  The  extent  to  which  a herd  may  be  affected  is  comparable 
to  that  found  with  tuberculosis. 


TABLE  I— THE  EXTENT  TO  WHICH  JOHNE’S  DISEASE  WAS  FOUND  IN  SOME 

DANISH  HERDS 


Herd 

Number  of 
animals  over 
twc  years  old 

Infected 

Number  of 
animals  under 
two  years  old 

Infected 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

1 

139 

45.3 

31 

0.0 

2 

69 

37.7 

25 

0.0 

3 .... 

67 

34.5 

26 

4.0 

4 

148 

10.8 

73 

5.5 

5— _ 

99 

10.0 

78 

10.0 

6 

291 

13.0 

77 

8.0 

7 

85 

23.5 

29 

0.0 

8 

89 

9.8 

19 

0.0 

Importance 

The  importance  of  a disease  is  measured  to  a large  extent 
by  the  number  of  herds  affected,  and  by  the  proportion  of  the 
diseased  animals  that  succumb  to  it  each  year.  The  decreased 
productivity  of  diseased  animals  is  also  to  be  considered.  In 
many  instances  the  highest  producers  of  the  herd  seem  to  be 
the  ones  affected.  A case  in  point  is  the  following.  Seven 
young  cows  and  heifers  were  found  affected  in  a herd  that  came 
under  our  observation.  The  five  highest  producers  of  the  herd 
were  found  among  these  diseased  animals. 

The  importance  of  the  disease  is  made  more  real  when  the 
actual  losses  from  herds  are  presented.  The  losses  in  five  dairy 
herds  concerning  which  we  have  been  able  to  secure  rather  com- 
plete histories  are  presented  in  Table  II. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


TABLE  II— LOSSES  FROM 


JOHNE’S  DISEASE  IN  A NUMBER  OP  WISCONSIN 
HERDS 


Number 
in  herd 

Duration 
of  infection) 

Number 
removed 
because  of 
infection 

Yearly 

losses 

1 _ 

2 

45 

8 years 
17  years 
15  years 
10  years 
10  years 

30 

8.5% 

4.7% 

3 _ 

50 

41 

4 _ . 

40 

20 

2.2% 

6.2% 

12.0% 

5 

35 

22 

18 

22 

An  annual  loss  of  from  2 per  cent  to  12  per  cent  over  a period 
of  years  is  a serious  matter  to  the  breeder.  It  is  a tax  from  which 
he  may  well  attempt  to  escape. 

Cause 

The  organism  causing  the  disease  is  one  of  an  important  group 
of  bacteria.  The  other  disease-producing  members  of  the  group 
are  the  human  tubercle  bacillus,  the  bovine  tubercle  bacillus,  the 
avian  tubercle  bacillus  and  the  organism  causing  leprosy.  These 
organisms  have  certain  common  properties,  one  being  their  very 
slow  growth  both  in  the  animal  body  and  in  the  artificial  cul- 
tures in  the  laboratory.  None  of  the  diseases  mentioned  is  of  an 
acute  nature;  the  organisms  named  and  the  Johne’s  bacillus  have 
much  the  same  appearance  under  the  microscope.  Indeed  the 
Johne’s  bacillus  cannot  with  certainty  be  recognized  from  the 
tubercle  bacillus  in  the  microscopic  examination  of  specimens 
from  cattle.  It  was  at  first  thought  to  be  the  avian  tubercle 
bacillus  which  when  growing  in  the  tissues  of  cattle  produced 
lesions  unlike  those  which  it  produces  in  the  tissues  of  the  bird. 

Johne’s  bacillus  undoubtedly  enters  the  body  of  the  animal 
through  the  food  and  drink.  It  finds  favorable  conditions  for 
growth  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine  and  in  the  neighboring  lymph 
glands.  The  bacilli  may  be  found  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
affected  tissues  of  some  animals,  while  in  the  tissue  of  other 
animals,  their  presence  is  detected  with  great  difficulty.  During 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease  it  is  probable  that  the  organism  is 
so  confined  within  the  tissues  that  it  is  unable  to  get  out  of  the 
body  of  the  affected  animal.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the 
organisms  get  into  the  intestinal  contents  and  are  excreted  in 
the  feces.  Opportunity  is  therefore  presented  for  them  to  be 
swallowed  by  a healthy  animal. 


Johne's  Disease 


9 


It  is  not  certain  whether  the  evident  symptoms  of  the  disease 
precede  this  excretion  or  follow  it.  If  the  former  condition  is 
true,  then  the  removal  from  the  herd  of  any  animal  that  shows 
physical  symptoms  should  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  in 
the  herd.  From  w'hat  is  known  of  other  diseases,  it  seems 


FIG.  II.— A PHOTOMICROGRAPH  OF  A SECTION  OF  A DISEASED 
LYMPH  GLAND. 

The  dark  areas  consist  of  masses  of  Johne’s  bacillus. 


probable  that  the  organisms  are  excreted  before  any  certain 
symptoms  are  evident.  This  implies  that  some  means  of  detect- 
ing the  disease  in  its  early  stages  is  essential  in  combating  its 
spread  both  in  the  herd  and  from  herd  to  herd. 

The  ability  to  grow  the  causal  organism  of  any  disease  is  like- 
ly to  be  of  great  assistance  in  gaining  information  of  value 
concerning  the  disease,  and  especially  in  detecting  it  in  the 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


FIG.  III.— GROWTH  OF  JOHNE’S  BACILLUS. 

The  tube  on  the  left  shows  the  meager  growth  obtained  when  the 
culture  was  first  isolated,  the  other  tubes  the  more  profuse  growth  when 
the  organism  had  become  better  adapted  to  artificial  culture  media. 


Johne's  Disease 


11 


early  stages.  The  organism  of  Johne’s  disease  was  not  grown 
in  artificial  cultures  until  1910  and  even  at  present  its  isolation 
and  continued  cultivation  is  a very  difficult  task  in  which  the 
failures  far  outnumber  the  successes. 

Symptoms 

The  physical  symptoms  are  slow  to  develop  after  the  invasion 
of  the  animal  by  the  organism.  From  observations  that  have 
been  made  in  England  it  seems  that  at  least  six  months  must 
elapse  after  invasion  before  symptoms  ever  become  evident.  This 
implies  that  the  disease  is  not  likely  to  be  noted  in  young  animals. 
Heifers  with  their  first  or  second  calf  are  more  apt  to  show  symp- 
toms than  older  or  younger  animals.  The  strain  placed  on  the 
animal  by  pregnancy  seems  to  accentuate  the  progress  of  the 
disease  which  may  have  been  acquired  in  early  life. 

The  most  striking  symptom  is  the  gradual  loss  of  flesh.  This 
continues  until  the  animal  becomes  a mere  skeleton.  The  eyes 
remain  bright  but  become  sunken  due  to  absence  of  intra-orbital 
fat.  The  milk  flow  is  reduced  and  finally  ceases  altogether.  Com- 
monly no  fever  is  present  and  the  appetite  is  not  impaired.  These 
conditions  are  similar  to  those  noted  in  tuberculosis,  especially  as 
it  occurs  in  birds.  The  first  suspicion  is  of  tuberculosis.  Marked 
emaciation  and  nonreaction  to  tuberculin  should  lead  to  a 
suspicion  of  Johne’s  disease. 

The  other  most  marked  symptom  is  a diarrhea  which  appears 
and  disappears  to  appear  again  sooner  or  later.  In  the  later 
stages  of  the  disease  the  diarrhea  may  be  constant  and  again  it 
may  be  entirely  absent.  It  should  be  recognized  that  there  are 
numerous  causes  of  both  marked  emaciation  and  diarrhea.  These 
symptoms  become  indicative  of  Johne’s  disease  only  when  coupled 
with  the  characteristic  lesions.  As  has  been  mentioned  before, 
the  appearance  of  the  symptoms  is  so  slow  that  the  suspicion  of 
the  owner  in  regard  to  a contagious  disease  is  not  aroused.  Often 
the  infection  has  an  opportunity  to  become  widely  disseminated 
in  a herd  before  serious  consideration  is  given. 

In  the  great  majojrity  of  infected  herds  but  one  or  two  animals 
are  lost  per  year.  This  again  tends  toward  the  thought  of  a 
non-contagious  trouble. 

Post  Mortem  Findings 

The  lesions  found  in  the  tissues  of  an  animal  that  has  died 
from  Johne’s  disease  are  usually  insignificant  as  compared  to 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


the  physical  condition  to  which  the  animal  is  reduced.  In  many 
instances  the  extent  of  lesions  bears  no  relation  to  the  emaciation 
or  to  the  diarrhea  that  the  animal  shows.  Cases  of  long  standing 
may  show  very  little  evidence  on  post  mortem,  while  in  others 
the  tissue  changes  are  comparatively  quite  marked.  It  seems 
certain  that  this  non-relation  between  the  extent  of  lesions  and 
the  condition  of  the  animal  has  caused  many  cases  of  Johne’s 
disease  to  pass  undetected  by  the  examining  veterinarian.  The 
lesions  of  Johne’s  disease  will  rarely  be  discovered  unless  the 
intestine  is  slit  and  the  inner  wall  examined.  In  the  cases  ex- 
amined by  us  in  which  the  lesions  were  insignificant,  the  organ- 
isms have  been  found  by  microscopic  examination. 

The  only  characteristic  lesion  is  the  thickening  of  the  intestinal 
wall.  This  may  vary  widely  both  in  extent  and  degree.  Only  a 


FIG.  IV. — HEALTHY  AND  DISEASED  INTESTINAL  WALLS. 

The  intestines  were  slit  open  and  the  cut  edge  photographed.  The 
one  at  the  bottom  represents  the  thickness  of  the  normal  wall,  that  at 
the  top  the  thickening  due  to  the  growth  of  Johne’s  bacillus. 

short  portion  of  the  tract  may  show  the  thickened  condition, 
while  again  it  may  extend  for  many  feet.  It  is  most  often  noted 
at  the  opening  between  the  large  and  small  intestine,  the  ileo- 
caecal  valve.  It  is  here  that  the  change  is  likely  to  be  most 
marked.  The  thickening  of  the  wall  results  in  more  wrinkling 
than  is  noted  in  a normal  wall.  In  the  normal  intestine  the  folds 
will  disappear  when  the  wall  is  stretched,  while  they  are  perma- 
nent in  the  case  of  the  diseased  intestine.  The  wrinkled  condi- 
tion may  occur  in  patches  rather  than  in  a continuous  area. 


Johne's  Disease 


13 


The  tissues  near  the  ileo-caecal  valve  may  be  swollen  and 
greatly  inflamed.  There  are,  however,  no  hemorrhages  nor 
do  ulcerations  occur.  The  mesenteric  lymph  glands  usually  appear 
moist  when  cut  and  often  a little  swollen. 

Mode  of  Spread  From  Herd  To  Herd 
There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  disease  is  transmitted 
from  herd  to  herd  other  than  through  the  transfer  of  an  affected 
animal.  Animals  may  be  infected  and  yet  show  no  symptoms 


FIG.  V.— HEALTHY  AND  DISEASED  INTESTINAL  WALLS. 

The  upper  part  of  the  picture  represents  a normal  wall  when  tightly 
stretched,  the  bottom  part  the  wall  of  an  animal  infected  with  Johne’s 
bacillus.  It  is  impossible  to  remove  the  wrinkles  of  the  diseased  wall 
by  stretching  it. 

for  many  months.  The  seller  may  have  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  animal  is  other  than  healthy  and  so  is,  as  far  as  the  in- 
dividual animal  is  concerned,  perfectly  innocent.  Until  recently 
most  owners  of  affected  herds  have  not  realized  the  contagious 
nature  of  the  malady  which  was  causing  them  more  or  less  con- 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


tinuous  losses  and  were  again  perfectly  innocent  of  any  wrong 
in  the  sale  of  animals.  At  present  it  is  feared  that  as  much  can- 
not be  said  for  all  breeders. 

The  history  of  a number  of  affected  herds  has  been  obtained 
with  such  completeness  that  the  original  source  of  infection 
could  be  traced.  Without  exception  a purchase  from  an  infected 
herd  has  been  the  origin  of  the  trouble.  The  best  protection  of 
the  buyer  is  inquiry  concerning  the  general  healtth  of  the  herd, 
and  concerning  the  nature  of  losses  that  have  occurred,  rather 
than  inquiry  concerning  the  individual  to  be  purchased.  A gener- 
al statement  concerning  the  health  of  the  entire  herd  should  be 
required  by  the  purchasers  at  any  consignment  sale  of  cattle. 

Rate  of  Spread  in  Individual  Herds 

The  rate  of  spread  is  dependent  on  the  number  of  animals  ex- 
creting the  causal  organism  and  the  number  of  organisms  given 
off  by  each  animal.  It  is  also  influenced  by  the  conditions  under 
which  the  animals  are  kept.  Since  the  organisms  are  given  off 
in  the  feces  and  enter  the  body  of  healthy  animals  in  the  food  or 
drink,  any  method  that  tends  to  soil  the  food  with  manure  will 
hasten  the  spread  of  the  disease.  Yard  feeding  will  favor  the 
dissemination  to  a greater  extent  than  stall  feeding.  The  keep- 
ing of  calves  in  yards  with  older  cattle  would  seem  to  be  bad 
practice,  since  in  this  way  what  seems  to  be  the  most  susceptible 
part  of  the  herd  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  portion  that  may 
be  excreting  the  organisms. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  cases  that  have  come  to  our  at- 
tention : A dairyman  purchased  three  young  cows  at  a sale  in 

1910.  The  animals  were  in  good  condition  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase. In  1912  two  of  these  cows  became  poor;  they  had  diarrhea 
at  intervals  and  were  sold  as  canners.  In  1913  the  other  animal 
showed  symptoms  and  was  sold.  In  1914  an  animal  of  his  own 
breeding  was  sold  because  of  her  condition.  Up  to  1920,  15  head 
have  either  died  or  have  been  sold  for  slaughter  because  of  Johne’s 
disease.  The  average  size  of  the  herd  during  this  ten  year  inter- 
val was  18  head.  When  the  herd  was  first  tested  in  1920,  seven 
reacting  animals  were  found  in  the  herd  of  18. 

Another  dairyman  purchased  a two-year-old  heifer  with  her 
first  calf  in  October,  1910.  This  heifer  had  been  imported  four 
months.  At  the  time  of  purchase  she  was  thin  in  flesh.  The 
owner,  who  was  unacquainted  with  Johne’s  disease,  attributed  her 


Johne’s  Disease 


15 


condition  to  other  causes.  This  heifer  died  the  following  March. 
At  the  time  the  heifer  died,  two  others  were  scouring  badly  and 
were  sold.  Still  another  was  isolated  and  died  in  August,  1911. 
Up  to  1920,  20  head  have  been  lost  from  this  herd  of  35  to  40 
animals.  These  were  mostly  heifers  with  their  first  or  second 
calf.  None  were  under  two  years  old  and  the  symptoms  were 
shown  always  just  after  calving,  during  the  period  of  heaviest 
milk  flow.  In  this  herd  also,  many  of  the  highest  producers  were 
taken.  One  interesting  observation  in  connection  with  this  herd 
was  the  fact  that  a middle  aged  or  old  animal  has  never  shown 
symptoms  of  Johne’s  disease. 

In  1913  a dairyman  bought  four  heifers.  Among  them  was  a 
yearling  which  developed  in  a normal  manner  as  far  as  was 
observed.  In  1919  this  cow  exhibited  symptoms  of  Johne’s 
disease  and  was  sold.  It  seems  probable  that  the  infection  was 
introduced  in  this  yearling  heifer.  A few  additional  animals 
were  purchased  but  no  history  of  Johne’s  disease  could  be  found 
in  the  herds  from  which  they  came  and  they  have  not  since 
developed  it,  and  are  still  in  the  herd.  No  animal  which  had 
been  raised  on  the  place  and  sold  between  1913  and  1919  was  in 
an  unthrifty  condition  when  sold.  These  facts  indicate  that  the 
infection  was  inactive  in  this  heifer  for  six  years  and  then  be- 
came active.  During  the  past  two  years  two  additional  cases 
have  developed  in  this  herd. 

A breeder  of  purebred  dairy  cattle  purchased  a bull  in  1903. 
This  bull  became  thin  and  died  of  Johne’s  disease  in  about  one  and 
one-half  years  after  reaching  the  farm.  Up  to  the  year  1917  this 
herd  has  lost  20  head.  One  noteworthy  observation  on  this  farm 
was  a 10-year-old  cow  that  exhibited  symptoms  of  Johne’s  disease. 
The  specific  organisms  were  found  on  postmortem. 

The  Johnin  Test 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  there  is  opportunity  for  the  disease 
to  be  transmitted  by  an  animal  before  the  condition  of  the  animal 
is  recognized.  The  recognition  of  this  fact  has  been  the  stimulus 
to  seek  for  more  perfect  methods  of  detecting  the  disease  in  its 
early  stages  before  the  organisms  have  been  given  off. 

The  supposed  relation  of  the  avian  tubercle  bacillus  to  the  dis- 
ease led  to  the  use  of  tuberculin  prepared  with  this  organism.  The 
results  obtained  by  various  workers  were  fairly  satisfactory.  The 
cultivation  of  Johne’s  bacillus  by  Twort  and  Ingram  of  England 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


in  1910  enabled  them  to  prepare  a product  similar  to'  tuberculin 
in  its  mode  of  manufacture  and  use  and  in  its  effect  on  the  dis- 
eased animal. 

The  preparation  of  the  Johnin,  as  the  diagnostic  agent  is  called, 
is  briefly  as  follows : The  organisms  causing  the  disease  are  grown 
in  a specially  prepared  beef  broth  for  at  least  three  months.  The 
flasks  containing  the  cultures  are  heated  in  order  to  kill  the  or- 
gansims ; and  a small  amount  of  carbolic  acid  is  added  as  a 
preservative.  The  product  thus  consists  of  an  extract  of  the  or- 
ganism. It  will  contain  some  of  the  dead  bacilli.  It  is,  of  course, 
impossible  for  it  to  cause  the  disease  since  any  organisms  that  it 
contains  have  been  killed  by  heating. 

A large  percentage  of  cattle  infected  with  Johne’s  disease  when 
injected  with  Johnin  will  respond  with  a rise  in  temperature,  mus- 
cular tremors,  or  diarrhea.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results  with 
this  agent  it  is  necessary  to  inject  the  Johnin  into  the  blood  stream. 
The  manner  in  which  this  test  is  conducted  is  as  follows : The 
cattle  to  be  tested  are  confined  and  handled  in  the  customary  man- 
ner. The  surroundings  should  be  such  as  to  cause  as  little  excite- 
ment as  possible,  since  the  results  of  the  test  are  based  largely  on 
a rise  in  temperature.  Any  outside  influences,  therefore,  that  tend 
to  cause  variations  in  temperature  may  give  rise  to  erroneous  re- 
sults. Feed  and  water  should  be  as  usual  except  that  water  should 
be  given  just  after  a temperature  is  taken  and  not  just  before, 
as  large  quantities  of  cold  water  lower  the  temperature  for  a lit- 
tle while.  One  or  two  temperatures  are  taken  before  the  in- 
jection of  the  Johnin.  Any  animal  with  a temperature  higher  than 
103  degrees  should  not  be  tested.  If  there  are  any  animals  in 
the  herd  with  a high  temperature  without  apparent  reason,  such 
as  recent  calving,  vaginal  discharge,  garget,  etc.,  none  of  the  ani- 
mals should  be  tested  at  this  time.  Leaving  those  with  high  tem- 
peratures and  testing  the  remainder  is  poor  practice  for  the 
reason  that  the  same  factor  that  is  causing  the  high  temperature, 
may  at  some  time  during  the  test  cause  a fever  in  animals  that 
at  the  beginning  showed  a normal  temperature. 

The  head  of  the  animal  to  be  injected  is  secured  with  a halter 
as  high  up  as  possible  and  to  one  side.  A rope  is  placed  around 
the  neck  just  in  front  of  the  shoulders  and  drawn  taut  enough 
to  distend  the  jugular  vein.  For  the  average  cow  10  cc.  are  in- 
jected into  the  vein.  Cows  showing  symptoms  should  receive  15- 
20cc.  If  possible  the  first  temperature  is  taken  within  thirty 


Johne's  Disease 


17 


minutes  after  the  injection  of  the  Johnin.  Temperatures  should 
then  be  taken  every  two  hours  up  to  and  including  the  12th  hour. 
Care  should  be  exercised  to  deposit  the  Johnin  in  the  blood  stream, 
for  if  it  is  injected  into  the  tissue  around  the  vein,  the  reaction 
may  fail  to  develop  in  the  usual  manner.  The  extent  of  the  rise  in 
temperature  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  tuberculin  reaction. 
Usually  the  rise  and  fall  of  temperature  is  gradual.  Figure  VI 
shows  typical  reactions  to  the  Johnin  test. 


FIG.  VI.— REACTION  CURVES. 

The  temperature  curves  of  three  animals.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
maximum  temperature  is  reached  more  quickly  than  in  the  tuberculin 
test,  although  the  height  of  the  reaction  is  very  similar. 


The  initial  increase  in  temperatures  may  come  at  any  time  be- 
tween thirty  minutes  and  ten  hours  after  injection.  The  third  to 
the  seventh  hour  is  the  usual  time  for  the  temperature  to  start 
rising  if  a reaction  is  going  to  take  place. 

The  following  table  shows  the  hour  at  which  the  highest  tem- 
perature was  reached  in  79  head  which  reacted  to  the  Johnin  test: 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


TABLE  III— HOUR  AT  'WHICH  MAXIMUM  TEMPERATURE  WAS  REACHED  AFTER 
INJECTION  OP  JOHNIN  INTO  DISEASED  ANIMALS 


Hour  after 
injection 

1 

Number 

reacted 

Per  cent 

Hour  after 
injection 

Number 

reacted 

Per  cent 

1 

None 

None 

7 

18 

22.7 

2 

None 

None 

8 

4 

S.5 

3 

8 

10.12 

9 

1 

1.16 

4 

5 

6.32 

10 

3 

3.70 

5 

34 

43. 

11 

1 

1.10 

G 

5 

6.32 

12 

None 

None 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  data  that  approximately  80  per  cent  of 
the  highest  temperatures  fell  between  the  fifth  and  eighth  hours. 
As  in  the  tuberculin  reaction  there  is  considerable  variation  in 
the  maximum  temperature  reached  by  the  reacting  animal.  The 
character  of  the  reaction  gives  no  idea  as  to  the  extent  of  the 
disease.  Animals  in  the  last  stages  of  the  disease  often  fail  to 
react.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  take  this  fact  into  considera- 
tion in  dealing  with  infected  herds. 


TABLE  IV— PERCENTAGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  REACTING  ANIMALS  ACCORDING 
TO  MAXIMUM  TEMPERATURE  ATTAINED  ON  INJECTION  OF  JOHNIN 


Maximum  temperature 

Number 

Per  cent 

103-104*  F.  . __  _ __  _ 

26 

31.3 

104-100°  E.  __  _ 

35 

42.1 

i05-iofi°  F.  i 

11 

13.2 

106-107*  E.  i 

8 

9.6 

107-108*  F.  _ 

3 

3.6 

A summary  of  the  maximum  temperatures  reached  by  react- 
ing animals  is  presented  in  Table  IV,  from  which  it  appears  that 
the  majority  of  reactions  reach  their  maximum  between  104  and 
106  degrees  F. 

This  test  should  not  be  attempted  by  other  than  a skilled  veter- 
inarian. The  success  or  failure  is  determined  largely  by  the  ex- 
pertness of  the  operator  in  being  able  to  deposit  the  Johnin  into 
the  blood  stream  and  not  in  the  tissue  around  the  vein.  The  in- 
jection of  the  Johnin  beneath  the  skin,  as  is  done  with  tuberculin, 
does  not  give  good  results. 

Muscular  tremors  and  a diarrhea  are  frequently  shown  by 
reacting  cattle. 

The  diagnostic  fluid,  Johnin,  was  first  prepared  and  used  by 
the  Englishmen,  Twort  and  Ingram.  In  their  work  the  test  was 
applied  only  to  animals  that  had  been  artificially  infected  with 


Johne's  Disease 


19 


the  disease  organism  or  to  animals  that  showed  symptoms  of  the 
disease.  No  effort  was  made  to  test  an  entire  herd,  and  to  deter- 
mine thus  all  or  part  of  the  infected  animals,  the  removal  of  which 
from  the  herd  should  tend  to  decrease  the  disease  and  possibly  to 
actually  free  it  from  the  infection. 

First  Application  of  Johnin  for  Herd  Treatment 

In  1915  we  were  fortunate  enough  to  isolate  a culture  of  the 
organism  from  tissue  submitted  to  us  for  diagnosis.  Johnin  was 
prepared  and  through  the  assistance  of  the  State  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  of  a number  of  breeders  whose  herds  were  known 
to  be  infected,  efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  value  of 
the  agent.  More  than  one  thousand  cattle  have  been  tested. 

In  any  such  test  it  is  evident  that  errors  may  occur  in  two  ways. 
Non-inf ected  animals  mlay  react  to  the  test  or  infected  animals 
may  fail  to  react.  The  latter  is  the  more  serious  error  when  one 
is  interested  in  freeing  a herd  from  the  disease.  It  is  also  an  error 
that  only  long  continued  testing  of  an  infected  herd  can  evaluate. 
The  other  error  can  more  easily  be  measured  by  the  detection  of 
lesions  of  the  disease  or  the  causal  organism  in  the  tissues  of  re- 
acting animals. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  obtain  a post  mortem  examination  on 
all  of  the  animals  that  reacted  to  Johnin.  Such  observations  have 
been  made  on  thirty  animals.  In  twenty-nine  clear  evidence  of 
the  disease  was  found.  It  would  thus  seem  that  few  if  any  non- 
inf  ected  cattle  are  so  affected  by  the  Johnin  as  to  be  classed  as 
having  given  a reaction.  The  Johnin  test  seems  as  accurate  as 
the  tuberculin  test  in  this  respect. 

The  evidence  that  has  been  accumulated  in  connection  with  the 
other  error,  the  non-reaction  of  infected  animals,  is  small  in 
amount.  One  herd  in  which  the  disease  had  been  known  to  be 
present  for  a number  of  years  has  been  tested  nine  times  in  the 
period  from  June,  1917,  to  December,  1921.  Reactors  have  been 
found  in  all  except  the  last  two  tests.  A summary  of  these  tests 
is  presented  in  Table  V. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


TABLE  y— SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS  ON  CONSECUTIVE  TESTS  OF  AN  INFECTED 

HERD 


June,  1917  

December,  1917 
February,  1919 

June,  1919 

February,  1920 

June,  1920  

November,  1920 

June,  1921 

December,  1921 


Date  of  test 


Number  tested  Number  reacted 


43 

53 

51 
49 

52 

54 
47 

55 
51 


5 

4 

6 
4 
4 

4 

6 

None 

None 


It  is  impossible  to  tell  at  this  time  whether  the  herd  is  actually 
free  from  the  disease  or  not.  Further  tests  are  needed  to  demon- 
strate this.  One  encouraging  fact  is  that  none  of  the  cattle  have 
shown  symptoms  of  this  disease  since  the  first  test  was  made.  This 
means  that  the  test  is  detecting  the  disease  before  symptoms  be- 
come evident. 

If  it  should  prove  that  the  test  will  detect  the  trouble  before  the 
organisms  are  eliminated,  there  would  remain  no  doubt  concern- 
ing the  marked  diagnostic  value  of  the  Johnin.  Without  the  test 
the  infected  animals  remain  in  the  herd  until  the  disease  becomes 
far  advanced  with  the  probability  of  continued  spread  of  the  in- 
fection. When  the  test  is  employed  what  seem  to  be  healthy  ani- 
mals are  removed,  probably  before  the  infection  has  opportunity 
to  spread  from  them.  In  either  instance  the  owner  faces  loss. 
If  visibly  diseased  animals  remain  in  the  herd,  the  loss  becomes 
continuous.  With  some  means  of  early  detection,  losses  from  the 
disease  should  decrease  and  finally  stop. 

Seven  herds  have  been  tested  during  a shorter  period  of  time. 
The  observations  are  not  extended  enough  to  warrant  any  state- 
ment as  to  the  results.  It  is  only  through  the  co-operation  of  the 
breeders  and  veterinarians  that  the  value  of  these  methods  can 
be  determined  by  the  Experiment  Station.  The  writers  will  appre- 
ciate any  information  concerning  suspected  herds. 

In  but  one  instance  have  clinical  cases  appeared  in  any  of  the 
tested  herds. 

Duration  of  Disease  In  Individual  Animals 

With  Johne’s  disease,  as  with  tuberculosis,  the  infection  may  be 
present  for  long  periods  before  symptoms  become  evident.  In 
one  of  the  animals  that  came  under  our  observation  the  infection 
had  apparently  been  present  for  six  years.  In  another  herd  a 


Johne's  Disease 


21 


cow  has  been  reacting  to  the  Johnin  for  three  years,  and  at  present 
shows  no  symptoms  of  the  disease.  This  fact  makes  it  reasonably 
certain  that  eradication  by  elimination  of  those  animals  showing 
symptoms  would,  in  most  instances,  not  be  successful. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  this  that  removal  of  clinical  cases 
will  have  no  effect  in  decreasing  the  disease.  O.  Bang  informs  us 
that  the  disease  is  apparently  less  prevalent  in  Denmark  than  a few 
years  ago  and  offers  as  an  explanation  the  more  careful  watch  of 
the  herds,  and  the  prompt  removal  of  animals  showing  symptoms. 
It  is  evident  to  the  writers  that  this  is  the  method  that  must  be 
followed  to  a great  extent  in  this  country.  Prompt  removal  of 
all  suspicious  animals  from  the  herd  and  care  in  the  purchase  of 
animals  will  certainly  do  much  to  limit  the  continued  spread  of  this 
disease.  In  the  purebred  herds  the  use  of  the  Johnin  test  seems 
advisable. 

Transmission  From  Dam  to  Calf 

There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  calves  of  infected  dams  are 
infected  at  birth.  The  close  association  of  the  calf  with  an  in- 
fected mother  gives  opportunity  for  the  young  animal  to  ac- 
quire the  infection  and  to  develop  the  symptoms  later,  most  com- 
monly soon  after  the  first  or  second  calving.  The  prompt  separa- 
tion of  calf  and  dam  will,  undoubtedly,  prevent  the  infection  of 
the  former,  as  it  does  in  tuberculosis. 

Serum  Sickness 

It  is  necessary  to  add  to  the  broth  in  which  the  Johne’s  bacillus 
is  to  grow  a small  quantity  of  the  serum  from  horse  blood.  When- 
ever a small  quantity  of  the  serum  from  one  kind  of  animal  is 
injected  into  the  tissues  or  the  blood  stream  of  a different  kind 
of  animal,  the  treated  animal  becomes  sensitive  to  a second  dose 
of  the  same  kind  of  serum.  The  first  application  of  the  Johnin 
test  causes  no  disturbance  in  non-infected  animals,  while  infected 
animals  give  a reaction  as  has  been  described.  On  a second  test 
of  the  same  animals  some  disturbance  may  be  noted  in  all  animals. 
It  manifests  itself  in  rapid  breathing  and  drooling  from  the  mouth 
and  nostrils.  A swelling  of  the  soft  tissues  may  occur,  especially 
around  the  eyes,  the  anus  and  vulva,  and  udder.  The  extent  of 
the  disturbance  varies  markedly  from  animal  to  animal.  It  may 
be  so  slight  as  to  pass  unnoticed  in  many,  while  in  a few  prostra- 
tion may  occur.  There  is  no  rise  in  temperature.  The  symptoms 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  343 


of  “serum  sickness”  last  but  a few  hours,  and  do  not  complicate 
the  true  reaction  of  an  infected  animal  to  Johnin.  It  is  probable 
that  serum  sickness  can  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  cow  blood  serum 
in  the  preparation  of  Johnin. 

The  authors  desire  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Doctors  O. 
H.  Eliason  and  W.  R.  Claussen,  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  in  carrying  out  the  work  presented  in  this 
bulletin. 


HE  old  adage,  “an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a 


pound  of  cure — ” applies  especially  to  Johne’s  disease 


or  chronic  dysentery  of  cattle,  an  affection  which  is 
found  in  comparatively  few  herds  at  the  present  time.  Like 
tuberculosis,  it  progresses  very  slowly  in  the  animal,  which 
therefore,  may  show  no  evident  symptoms  for  many  months 
after  the  disease  is  established  in  the  tissues.  The  transfer 
of  such  an  apparently  healthy,  but  really  diseased,  animal 
from  one  herd  to  another  is  very  likely  to  produce  another 
center  of  infection  from  which  the  disease  may  spread  to 
other  herds.  The  rapidity  of  distribution  of  the  disease  in- 
creases as  the  centers  of  infection  increase. 

The  aim  of  this  bulletin  is  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
veterinarians  and  breeders  to  Johne’s  disease,  which,  it  is 
felt,  is  not  recognized  by  many,  in  order  that  steps  may  be 
taken  to  prevent  its  introduction  into  still  healthy  herds,  and 
to  gradually  eliminate  it  from  affected  herds. 

The  disease  can  be  detected  by  the  use  of  a product,  Johnin, 
which  is  made  with  the  organism  causing  the  disease,  and 
which  is  similar  to  tuberculin  in  its  mode  of  application  and 
effect  on  healthy  and  diseased  animals.  This  test  is  still  in 
an  experimental  stage.  Over  one  thousand  cattle  have  been 
tested.  The  disease  was  found  on  post  mortem  examination 
in  29  out  of  30  reacting  animals.  Whether  all  affected  ani- 
mals can  be  detected  by  the  test  can  be  determined  only  by 
a long  series  of  tests  on  diseased  herds.  Only  one  such  at- 
tempt has  been  made;  one  herd  has  been  tested  nine  times  in 
four  years.  No  reacting  animals  were  found  in  the  tests 
made  during  the  fourth  year.  It  cannot  be  asserted  that  the 
herd  is  free  from  the  disease,  but  the  indications  are  that  it  is. 

That  much  can  be  done  to  decrease  the  spread  of  the  disease 
in  a herd  by  prompt  removal  of  animals  showing  symptoms, 
has  been  demonstrated  in  Denmark. 

That  much  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  the 
disease  into  a herd  by  inquiry  concerning  the  health  of  every 
herd  from  which  animals  are  purchased  is  self-evident. 


: 


mMzSm 


Digest 

The  profitable  production  of  sour  cherries  depends  upon  cre- 
ating proper  growth  of  the  trees.  As  spur  blossom  buds  are 
hardier  than  lateral  blossom  buds,  the  securing  of  a crop  often 
depends  upon  the  numbers  of  spur  blossom  buds  on  the  tree. 

Page  3 

Base  the  cultural  treatment  upon  the  growth  made  by  the 
trees.  Since  a certain  amount  of  growth  is  necessary  for  regu- 
lar, large  yields,  the  amount  and  kind  of  culture  and  fertilizer 
should  be  based  upon  the  way  the  trees  grow.  Page  3 

The  use  of  fertilizers  is  necessary.  Under  the  conditions  in 
the  Sturgeon  Bay  district  it  appears  that  added  fertilizer  is  nec- 
essary to  secure  maximum  production.  This  seems  to  be  espe- 
cially true  of  older  bearing  orchards.  Page  3 

It  seems  advisable  to  cultivate  the  cherry  orchard  after  har- 
vest. There  is  evidence  that  this  would  help  the  amount  of 
growth,  size  of  fruit,  and  hardiness  of  the  blossom  buds.  Page  4 

Pruning  is  necessary  for  maximum  yields.  A lower  top,  uni- 
form vigor  of  wood  and  increased  growth  cheapen  production 
and  help  to  give  larger  crops.  Page  5 

Heavy  pruning  did  not  reduce  the  yield  of  the  trees.  A larger 
percentage  of  set  after  pruning  gave  a larger  crop  than  on  un- 
pruned trees.  Page  11 

The  tree  yields  are  more  closely  related  to  the  growth  of  the 
trees  than  to  any  special  cultural  treatment.  Page  13 

Low  yielding  trees  are  not  taking  an  off  year;  they  are  per- 
sistently unfruitful  until  forced  to  make  more  growth.  Page  15 

Winter  injury  of  the  blossom  buds  is  related  to  the  growth  and 
bud  development.  Within  limits,  the  more  growth,  the  hardier 
the  buds.  Page  17 

Sour  cherry  blossoms  are  self  fertile.  That  is,  they  set  fruit 
when  self-pollinated.  Page  21 

Setting  of  the  fruit  is  related  to  tree  nutrition.  The  stronger 

growing  trees  have  a higher  percentage  set  than  weaker  trees. 
Hence,  the  cultural  treatment  affects  the  set  of  fruit  by  varying 
the  nutrition  and  growth.  Page  22 

The  results  from  a cultural  treatment  appear  from  two  to 
three  years  after  the  treatment.  For  example,  a strong  growth 
produced  one  season  forms  spurs  the  next  and  only  in  the  third 
season  does  it  bear  fruit.  Page  29 


Better  Cherry  Yields 
in  Wisconsin 


R.  H.  Roberts 

Sour  cherries  yield  well  when  the  trees  grow  well.  If  the 
trees  are  allowed  to  make  a poor  growth,  low  yields  result. 
When  the  trees  are  forced  to  grow  vigorously,  large,  regular 
yields  can  be  expected.  However,  stated  cultural  practices  cannot 
be  expected  to  give  the  growth  necessary  for  profitable  produc- 
tion. This  is  because  the  growth  and  yield  of  a tree  in  any  one 
year  is  influenced,  not  only  by  pruning,  cultivation,  fertilization, 
soil  nutrients,  the  stock  upon  which  it  is  grafted,  the  presence  of 
insects  and  diseases,  and  the  weather,  but  also  by  the  results  of 
treatments  in  past  seasons.  For  example,  the  amount  of  growth 
made  by  a tree  largely  determines  the  number  of  spurs  it  pro- 
duces. These,  in  turn,  regulate  production  in  some  seasons,  as 
large  crops  are  wholly  dependent  upon  leaving  many  spur  blos- 
som buds.  (Fig.  1.)  As  growth  and  yield  are  correlated,  the 
growth  of  the  trees  should  be  made  the  basis  of  the  culture  given 
the  tree. 

Base  Cultural  Treatment  Upon  Way  Trees  Grow 
This  way  of  deciding  how  to  care  for  the  orchard  seems  to 
apply  to  almost  any  condition  of  tree,  but  particularly  to  individual 
low-yielding  trees,  as  in  this  case,  also,  there  is  a relation  between 
the  productiveness  of  the  trees  and  the  way  they  grow. 

The  amount  of  growth  desired  is  such  that  many  spurs  will  be 
produced.  In  general,  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  of  growth  should 
be  made  by  the  majority  of  the  terminal  branches  and  main 
laterals,  according  to  observations  of  the  growth  made  by  heavily 
yielding  trees  and  orchards.  Using  this  same  source  of  informa- 
tion as  well  as  the  results  from  experimental  plats,  the  following 
general  suggestions  as  to  cultural  treatments  are  made. 

Regular  Applications  of  Fertilizer  Seem  Necessary 

Heavily  yielding  orchards  in  general  are  fertilized  regularly, 
although  the  types  and  amount  of  fertilizer  vary.  Manure  gives 
excellent  results  with  cherries,  but  if  this  is  not  available  com- 
mercial fertilizer  can  be  substituted  with  good  results.  There  is 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


little  evidence  that  potassium  or  phosphorus  help  the  trees  much 
under  the  conditions  in  the  Sturgeon  Bay  district;  these  elements 
are  frequently  needed,  however,  for  the  cover  crop.  Readily 
available  forms  of  nitrogen  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  am- 
monia have  given  marked  results  in  many  orchards.  These 
chemicals  are  generally  used  at  a rate  of  about  three  pounds  to 
the  bearing  tree  and  the  applications  are  usually  made  two  to 


Fig-.  1.— RELATION  OF  GROWTH  TO  PRODUCTION. 

Note  the  fruit  on  the  longer  two-year  growth  (A)  as  compared  to  the 
bare  branch  (B)  when  less  growth  is  made.  Short  growths  (a)  produce 
blossom  buds  and  some  fruit.  Longer  growths  (b)  produce  spurs  and  a 
year  later  bear  fruit  (A). 

three  weeks  before  blossom  time.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  delay  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  markedly,  especially  on  dense-topped  trees. 
There  seems  to  be  little  assurance  of  counteracting  this  delay  by 
using  other  chemical  elements  in  the  fertilizer.  Also  it  seems  that 
this  delay  can  not  be  avoided  if  the  trees  are  to  be  kept  sufficiently 
vegetative  to  produce  maximum  crops. 

Cultivate  Until  After  Harvest 

Cultivation  should  be  continued  until  after  harvest  time,  from 
the  standpoint  of  better  production.  Observations  show  that  cul- 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


5 


tivating  after  the  first  of  August  does  not  keep  the  wood  growing 
too  late  in  the  season  or  prevent  the  securing  of  a sown  or  weed 
cover  crop  in  the  early  fall.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
trees  make  more  wood  growth  than  is  usually  secured.  In  a rainy 
summer,  cultivation  would  not  be  necessary,  as  it  is  advised  large- 
ly to  conserve  moisture.  Apparently,  much  hardier  blossom  buds 
are  borne  by  trees  which  are  kept  from  “maturing”  too  early  in 
the  season  even  though  the  length  of  growth  is  about  the  same. 
Definite  evidence  of  the  effect  upon  the  yield  of  later  cultivation 
in  a year  when  rainfall  was  light  during  the  growing  season  was 
secured  in  1921. 

The  size  of  fruit  was  taken  as  evidence  by  which  to  compare 
the  effects  of  early  and  late  cessation  of  cultivation  on  similar  soil 
types.  Table  I shows  that  a loss  of  15  to  20  per  cent  in  the  yield 
followed  early  stopping  of  cultivation. 


Table  I.  Effect  of  Continued  Cultivation  Upon  Fruit  Size  and  Yield 


Variety 

Culture 

No.  of  fruits 
per  quart 

Yield  reduction 

Richmond 

Stopped  early 

296.7 

18.0  per  cent 

Continued.  _ 

251.4 

Montmorency 

Shopped  early 

232.2 

19.5  per  cent 

Continued 

194.4 

Pruning  Greatly  Affects  Production 


From  what  has  been  said  about  the  relation  between  growth 
and  fruitfulness  it  might  be  assumed  that  the  abundant  use  of 
fertilizer  would  provide  sufficient  growth  and  thus  insure  high 
yields.  This  is  only  partly  true.  In  the  first  place,  the  principal 
growth  responses  from  the  use  of  fertilizers  are  found  at  the 
end  of  the  main  branches.  It  happens,  then,  that  forcing  the 
trees  by  cultivation  and  fertilization  without  pruning,  gives  tall 
trees  without  increasing  production,  as  the  shading  by  the  top 
branches  causes  the  death  of  the  lower  fruiting  wood.  (Fig  2.) 
A second  reason  that  fertilization  alone  is  not  practical  is  because 
pruning  has  a specific  value  in  keeping  the  trees  productive  that 
cannot  be  gotten  from  other  cultural  practices.  This  occurs  in 
four  ways : 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Fig-.  2. — UNPRUNED  TREES  GROW  TOO  TALL. 

Production  is  not  increased  as  the  top  wood  shades  and  kills  that 
underneath.  Harvesting  expense  and  troubles  increase,  but  production 
is  decreased. 

1.  Keeping  the  trees  low  to  reduce  harvesting  expenses  (Fig. 

3), 

2.  Keeping  the  lower  fruiting  wood  vegetative  through  thin- 
ning that  admits  light  and  through  rejuvenation  cutting  (Fig.  4), 

3.  Keeping  the  trees  “balanced”  so  strong  fruiting  wood  is  pro- 
duced all  over  the  tree  (Fig.  5), 

4.  Giving  individual  treatment  to  persistently  low-yielding, 
trees. 

The  system  of  heavily  heading  back  cherry  trees*  is  proving  of 
value  in  sour  cherry  culture.  An  especially  valuable  feature  is 
the  markedly  better  condition  of  the  low  fruiting  wood.  In  1919 
no  suggestion  was  offered  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  older  run-out 
fruiting  wood  of  mature  trees.  Some  limited  experiments  as  well 
as  observation  of  practical  operations  show  it  is  practical  and 
profitable  to  do  some  rejuvenation  pruning  of  this  wood 
(Fig.  4), 

* Prune  the  Cherry  Trees.  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  298. 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


7 


Fig.  3.— KEEP  THE  TREES  LOW. 

Harvesting  costs  are  low  and  regular  high  yields  are  possible.  Some 
rejuvenation  pruning  might  be  advisable  on  the  lower  wood  (Fig.  4). 
The  usual  practice  is  to  "let  it  alone  as  long  as  it  bears.” 


Fig.  4. — THE  LOWER  WOOD  CAN  BE  KEPT  GROWING 
YEGETATIVELY. 

Compare  with  Fig.  3.  The  best  practice  has  not  been  determined 
definitely  as  yet. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Keep  the  Tops  Uniformly  Vegetative 

Sometimes  one  or  two  branches  tend  to  outgrow  the  remain- 
ing limbs,  which  soon  results  in  the  unfruitfulness  or  death  of  the 
weaker  branches.  It  seems  to  be  best  to  cut  back  the  strong 
branches  severely,  with  the  result  that  the  other  branches  are 
more  nearly  in  “balance”  and  grow  better  (Fig.  5).  In  the  case 
of  close  headed  trees  where  the  lateral  branches  practically  girdle 
the  central  one  (Fig.  6),  there  seems  to  be  no  way  to  save  this 
branch. 


Fig.  5.— KEEP  THE  BRANCHES  “BALANCED  UP.” 

Large  branches  as  at  “A”  should  be  heavily  cut  back.  If  this  is  not 
done  the  remainder  of  the  tree  becomes  weak,  bears  little  and  gradually 
dies.  This  type  of  pruning  together  with  proper  fertilizing  results  in  a 
uniformly  vegetative  top  and  high  production.  A typical  Montmorency 
tree. 

Objection  is  sometimes  raised  to  cutting  off  the  strongly  grow- 
ing tops  because  “this  is  where  the  best  cherries  grow”  (Fig.  7). 
It  is  better  to  sacrifice  some  wood  for  the  benefit  of  the  lower, 
much  larger  portion  of  the  top.  Heading  back  pays  (Fig.  8). 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


9 


Fig-.  6.— POORLY  SPACED  BRANCHES  GIRDLE  THE  CENTRAL 

BRANCH. 

(A).  This  trouble  can  generally  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  lower 
branches  as  (B)  and  (C)  from  outgrowing  the  central  one  (A).  It  is 
too  late  to  remedy  the  mistake  at  this  late  time. 


Fig.  7. — THE  TALLEST  BRANCHES  SHADE  THE  LOWER  WOOD. 
These  vegetative  tips  produce  fine  fruit,  but  so  does  the  lower  wood 
when  given  light  and  a chance  to  grow. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Fig-.  8.— HEADING  BACK  OF  THIS  TREE  WAS  DELAYED  TOO  LONG. 

Begin  the  heading  back  while  the  trees  are  young,  (Fig  12).  The 
large  cuts  made  are,  however,  justified  by  the  profitable  production 
which  followed. 

The  lower  tree  produced  by  cutting  back  the  tops  may  spread 
more  than  others  and  result  in  crowding  between  the  trees.  Cut- 
ting back  main  laterals  similar  to  the  cuts  in  the  tops  will  largely 
relieve  this  situation.  Such  cuts  are  especially  needed  for  the  gen- 
eral benefit  of  the  growth  of  the  lower  wood  on  older  bearing 
trees. 

Individual  Trees  May  Need  Special  Pruning 

Low-producing  trees  are  generally  persistently  low  bearers  and 
are  not  having  an  “off  year.”  Such  trees  frequently  average  less 
than  ten  quarts  a year.  It  is  advisable  to  give  this  type  of  tree  a 
severe  cutting  back  to  force  a strong  new  growth  and  produce  a 
good  spur  fruiting  system. 

Cultural  Experiments  Included  Pruning  and 
Fertilizing  Plats 

The  need  for  pruning  in  growing  sour  cherries  has  already  been 
pointed  out.  To  find  out  more  about  the  amount  of  pruning  that 
could  be  done  without  reducing  the  yield  and  also  the  amount 
needed  annually,  experimental  plats  were  started  in  Door  county 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


11 


in  1919.*  The  treatments  included  heavy  and  light  pruning  in 
comparison  with  checks  on  the  two  principal  varieties,  Early 
Richmond  and  Montmorency.  As  it  seemed  to  be  impracticable 
to  try  to  secure  large  yields  without  the  use  of  some  fertilizer, 
a fertilizer  plat  was  included  in  the  treatments.  Three  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda  was  applied  annually  to  each  tree  on  this  plat 
about  two  weeks  before  the  trees  blossomed.  All  plats  received 
an  annual  application  of  two  to  three  tons  of  stable  manure  to  the 
acre.  All  plats  were  cultivated  during  the  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer and  a weed  cover  crop  was  allowed  to  grow  each  fall.  The 
trees  were  eight  years  old  in  1919.  They  were  planted  20  feet 
apart  by  the  square  system. 

Heavy  Pruning  Did  Not  Reduce  the  Yield 
Two  pruning  plats  were  used  for  each  variety.  The  trees  in 
one  plat  were  given  an  average  amount  of  cutting,  or  what  would 
be  sufficient  to  reduce  the  height  somewhat  and  to  keep  them 
sufficiently  open  to  maintain  good  light  conditions  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  trees.  (Figs.  9,  10  and  5.)  A similar,  but  some- 
what lighter  pruning  was  given  this  plat  each  of  the  two  succeed- 
ing years.  The  trees  in  the  second  plat  were  pruned  very  heavily 
in  1919  to  determine  the  effect  of  this  type  of  cutting  upon  yield. 
Practically  no  pruning  was  done  in  succeeding  seasons  except  to 
remove  a few  sucker  growths.  The  reduction  in  fruiting  area, 
together  with  the  yields  secured,  are  shown  in  Table  II : 


Table  II.  Effect  of  Pruning  Upon  Yield,  Sturgeon  Bay,  1919 


Variety 

Plat 

Percentage  of 
buds  pruned  off 

Percent- 
age of 
buds 
fruiting 

Yields 
qts.  per 
tree 

Spurs 

Ter- 

minals 

Tree 

Early  Richmond. _ 

Check 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

13.5 

13.9 

Heavy  pruning 

27.4 

52.2 

37.1 

28.8 

17.0 

Pruning 

17.5 

17.5 

17.3 

19.7 

18.0 

Montmorency 

Cheek 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

32.2 

36.1 

Heavy  pruning 

25.4 

30.6 

27.9 

48!8 

44^8 

Pruning 

15.4 

15.4 

15.4 

34.7 

38.2 

“Heavy  pruning”  reduced  the  fruiting  area  (the  number  of 
blossom  buds  on  the  trees)  by  practically  one-third,  but  the  yield 
on  this  plat  was  somewhat  larger  than  on  the  unpruned  trees  be- 


* A co-operative  experiment  was  conducted  with  the  generous  help  of 
L.  E.  Birmingham,  Sturgeon  Bay,  Wisconsin.  The  records  taken  in  1921 
were  made  by  A.  L.  Schrader. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


cause  of  a greater  percentage  set  of  fruit.  In  fact,  it  appears  that 
the  heavy  dropping  of  fruits  from  unpruned  trees  consistently  re- 
duces the  yield  below  that  of  either  heavily  or  moderately  pruned 
trees. 


Fig.  9.— CUT  BACK  THE  TOP. 

This  type  of  pruning  lets  light  reach  the  lower  fruiting  wood.  It  als<> 
reduces  harvesting  troubles  and  costs.  Early  Richmond  tree.  Com- 
pare with  Fig.  10. 

Cultural  Treatment  May  Not  Increase  the  Yield 

It  is  usual  to  assume  that  the  difference  between  the  yield  from 
a “check”  plat  and  from  any  other  plat  in  an  orchard  cultural 
experiment  is  a fixed  and  definite  measure  of  the  influence  of  the 
treatment  used.  This  practice  is  believed  to  be  wrong  for  two 
main  reasons : 

1.  The  influence  of  the  previous  condition  of  the  trees  upon 
production  is  not  given  consideration. 

2.  It  does  not  allow  for  individual  differences  between  the 
trees,  which  is  more  or  less  common  to  most  orchards  and  is  es- 
pecially important  with  small  plats. 

Both  of  these  facts  are  clearly  shown  by  the  data  in  Tables  III 
and  IV.  In  1919  the  few  Richmond  trees  which  were  given  only 
nitrate  of  soda  in  addition  to  cultivation,  gave  the  lowest  yield, 
while  in  the  case  of  Montmorency  trees  they  gave  the  highest  yield. 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


13 


This  does  not  mean  that  nitrate  of  soda  is  bad  for  Early  Richmond 
trees  and  good  for  Montmorency  trees,  but  rather  that  the  yield 
during  the  first  year  of  treatment  was  largely  determined  by  the 
previous  history  of  the  trees.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  a 


Fig.  10.— PROPER  TOOLS  ARE  NECESSARY  FOR  CORRECT  PRUNING. 

Failure  to  head  back  and  thin  out  the  upper  part  of  the  top  is  often 
due  to  lack  of  equipment.  Use  a pole  pruner  or  a curved  saw  attached 
to  a pole.  (Same  tree  as  Fig.  9.) 

comparison  of  the  yield  on  the  same  trees  in  different  years,  as  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  an  experiment,  would  give  a more  ac- 
curate measurement  of  the  effects  of  the  cultural  treatment  than 
merely  to  compare  check  and  cultural  plats.  With  this  idea  in 
mind  the  ratio  or  relation  of  the  yield  in  1919  to  that  of  1921  is 
shown.  The  results  of  the  treatments  when  figured  in  this  way, 
as  well  as  by  comparing  the  yields,  are  about  as  follows : 

1.  Strongly  growing,  high-yielding  trees  were  kept  uniformly 
productive  by  fertilizing. 

2.  Poorly  vegetative,  low-yielding  trees  were  made  to  yield 
moderately  by  fertilizing. 

3.  A combination  of  pruning  and  cultivation  increased  the 
growth  and  yields. 

4.  Heavy  pruning  increased  the  growth  and  yields. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


5.  Moderate  pruning  without  fertilizing  gave  slight  increases 
in  yield. 

6.  Montmorency  trees  gave  double  the  yield  of  fruit  of  the 
Richmond  trees.  This  was  apparently  due  in  large  part  to  the 
varietal  difference  in  winter  killing  of  the  blossom  buds. 


Table  III.  Yield  on  Cultural  Plats,  Sturgeon  Bay,  1919  to  1921. 


No. 

trees 

Yield  per  tree 

Relation  of 
yield  1919 
to  1921 

Plat 

Quarts 

1 

Per  cent  of  cheek 

1919 

1 i920 

1921 

Total 

1 1919 

1920 

1921 

Total 

Ratio 

% 

check 

Richmond- 
Check  

8 

13.9 

9.8 

20.4 

14.1 

100. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

1.5 

100. 

Heavy  Pruning 

7 

17.0 

14.7 

35.5 

67.2 

122.2 

150.0 

174.0 

152.0 

2.44 

162.7 

Pruning 

21 

18.0 

13.5 

30.0 

61.5 

129.5 

137.8 

147.2 

139.4 

1.67 

111.2 

Pruning 

and  Nitrate 

21 

18.2 

23.8 

36.4 

78.4 

132.0 

! 242.9 

178.4 

178.0 

2.0 

133.3 

Nitrate - 

3 

6.( 

13.0 

19.3 

38.3 

43.2 

; 132.7 

94.6 

86.8 

3.22 

214.6 

Montmorency— 
Cheek 

8 

36.] 

22.8 

45.6 

104.5 

100. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

1.26 

100. 

Heavy  Pruning 

6 

44.8 

31.5 

68.1 

144.4 

124.2 

138.2 

149.3 

138.2 

1.52 

120.7 

Pruning 

20 

38.1 

29.5 

51.4 

119. lj 

105.8' 

129.4 

112.7 

114. 

1.35 

107.1 

Pruning 

and  Nitrate 

20 

39.2 

37.1 

56.6 

133.9 

108.6 

162.8 

124.2 

128.2 

1.45 

115.0 

Nitrate 

3 

49.  S 

49.3 

63.0 

161.6 

136.7 

226.2 

138.1 

1 

154.6 

1.28 

101.5 

The  productiveness  of  the  trees  is  more  closely  related  to  the 
way  they  grow  than  to  the  cultural  treatment.  (Table  III.)  That 
is,  the  same  treatment  results  in  different  yields  on  trees  that 
grow  differently.  On  the  contrary,  trees  which  grow  alike  yield 
very  similar  crops  of  fruit  even  when  under  different  cultural 
treatments.  It  can  be  expected,  then,  that  poorly  growing  and 
weakly  vegetative  trees  will  be  made  more  fruitful  by  any  treat- 
ment which  increases  their  growth  without  materially  reducing 
the  fruiting  surface.  A like  amount  of  care  could  not  be  ex- 
peted  to  increase  the  growth  or  yield  of  highly  producing  trees. 
The  cultural  treatment  should,  then,  be  based  upon  the  growth 
condition  of  the  trees. 

Fertilizing  and  Pruning  Pay 

It  is  very  unusual  for  poorly  cared  for  trees  to  be  vegetative 
enough  to  produce  large  crops  of  fruit.  As  a consequence,  prun- 
ing and  fertilizing  to  produce  the  necessary  growth  has  been  very 
profitable.  The  cost  of  annual  pruning  on  the  experimental  plat 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


15 


was  equivalent  to  the  price  of  one-half  to  one  quart  of  cherries 
per  tree;  that  of  fertilizing  totaled  a little  more.  Since  these 
treatments  increased  production  in  excess  of  this  amount  they 
are  profitable  operations. 

Individual  Trees  Consistently  Low  or  High  Producers 

Some  additional  effects  of  the  different  treatments  in  the  cul- 
tural plats  were  (1)  the  delayed  maturity  of  fruit  on  the  nitrated 
trees,  (2)  the  production  of  some  sucker  growths  on  the  heavily 
pruned  trees,  and  (3)  the  much  healthier  condition  of  the  wood 
and  foliage  of  fertilized  and  pruned  trees  as  compared  to  check 
trees.  Another  significant  fact  gained  from  the  yield  records 
was  the  finding  of  large  variation  in  the  yields  of  individual 
trees.  While  uneven  production  in  an  orchard  is  a common  fact, 
it  is  often  considered  that  the  different  trees  bear  in  different 
years.  That  is,  a low-yielding  tree  is  thought  to  be  one  that  bore 
heavily  the  previous  season.  Yield  records  of  the  trees  show  this 
is  not  the  case,  Table  IV.  The  low-producing  trees  were  found 
to  be  consistently  light  bearers  and  the  heavily  producing  trees  to 
be,  in  general,  consistently  heavy  bearers. 


Table  IV.  Yields  on  Different  Richmond  Trees,  1919  to  1921 


Plat 

Tree 

Production  number 

Quarts  per  tree 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Total 

Check 

Low  _ — _ 

164 

4 

4 

10 

18 

148 

4 

5 

6 

15 

138 

7 

8 

4 

19 

High 

128 

40 

23 

60 

123 

163 

34 

17 

50  1 

101 

Nitrate ___  _ . 

Low  __ 

98 

6 

10 

12 

28 

Heavy  pruning 

Low  _ 

155 

4 

8 

14 

26 

156 

3 

9 

4 

16 

High  

151 

36 

32 

67  i 

135 

153 

36 

24 

48 

108 

Pruning  _ _ _ 

Low  _ 

124 

4 

2 

13 

19 

127 

4 

4 

8 

16 

142 

4 

5 

11 

20 

146 

7 

8 

11 

26 

High  

123 

34 

30 

48 

112 

132 

48 

28 

52 

128 

133 

44 

20 

62 

126 

134 

44 

25 

65 

134 

Nitrate  and  pruning 

Low __ 

104 

ty 

10 

10 

25 

106 

3 

8 

14 

25 

113 

2 

5 

7 

14 

117 

4 

3 

6 

13 

High  

107 

32 

52 

75 

129 

94 

42 

40 

84 

166 

97 

48 

56 

91 

l 195 

112 

40 

48 

i 58 

1 

j 146 

16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


High  and  Low  Yielding  Trees  Have  Different  Spur  Habits 

In  selecting  the  data  for  Table  III  the  lowest  and  highest  yield- 
ing trees  were  chosen.  Trees  which  produced  average  yields 
were,  however,  also  consistent  in  annual  production.  The  cause 
of  the  individual  variation  between  trees  would  not  appear  to  be 
found  in  variations  in  the  soil.  It  is  believed  that  variations  in 


Fig-.  11.— SHADE  THE  TRUNKS  AND  PREVENT  SOUTHWEST  INJURY. 

This  type  of  injury  results  more  or  less  in  rapid  death  of  the  branches 
above  the  wounds  and  the  corresponding-  loss  of  fruiting-  surface.  Shad- 
ing- the  trunks  to  prevent  alternate  freezing-  and  thawing-  in  the  spring 
is  an  effective  preventative.  Veneering,  boards  and  building  paper  are 
used  as  shading  materials. 

the  stocks  may  play  a large  part  in  this  situation,  as  the  high- 
yielding  trees  are  in  general  more  vegetative  and  larger  than  the 
low-yielding  trees.  In  some  orchards  a tree  is  occasionally  found 
which  appears  to  be  growing  too  much  to  be  very  fruitful.  There 
are  some  trees  with  “Southwest  injury”  in  the  plats  (Fig.  11),  but 
this  was  not  consistently  related  to  low  production.  It  did  ap- 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


17 


pear,  however,  that  the  type  of  blossom  buds  on  the  trees  was 
very  closely  associated  with  their  productiveness.  Trees  with 
high  percentages  of  spur  buds  were  good  producers.  This  is 
consistent  with  the  more  uniform  and  particularly  the  greater 
production  of  the  Montmorency  trees.  Trees  of  this  variety  have 
better  spur  systems  than  do  Richmond  trees  that  have  received 
the  same  cultural  care.  Especially  in  seasons  when  winter  in- 
jury of  the  blossom  buds  is  severe,  as  in  1920,  the  trees  with 
many  spur  buds  usually  bear  much  better  than  the  trees  with  few 
spur  buds  (Table  V)  : 


Table  V.  Relation  of  Percentage  of  Spur  Buds  to  Yield,  1920 


Variety 

Tree 

Yield  in 
quarts 

Blossom 

buds 

Per  cent 
of  buds 
on  spurs 

Richmond - 

134 

25 

8,860 

36.8 

105 

26 

9,913 

45.3 

123 

30 

11,832 

38.7 

94 

40 

12,218 

54.3 

Montmorency _ _ 

73 

30 

10,304 

31.2 

43 

30 

11,283 

38.8 

36 

37 

13,303 

53.8 

S! 

43 

1 

15,550 

59.0 

Relation  of  Winter  Injury  of  Blossom  Buds  to  Bud 
Development 


Observation  of  the  occurrence  of  winterkilling  of  the  blossom 
buds  has  led  to  the  belief  that  this  trouble  is  also  very  largely  re- 
lated to  the  growth  condition  of  the  trees.  It  was  found  that  the 
blossom  buds  which  are  most  advanced  in  development  at  the  be- 
ginning of  winter  are  most  subject  to  winterkilling.  An  impor- 
tant fact  from  the  cultural  viewpoint  is  that,  in  general,  the  great- 
est development  of  the  blossom  buds  before  winter  occurs  on 
trees  which  make  little  growth.  Likewise,  the  least  development 
of  the  blossom  buds  and  consequently  the  hardiest  buds  are  on 
the  trees  which  make  the  most  growth.  It  is  apparent,  then,  that 
a cultural  system  which  was  planned  to  check  the  wood  growth 
of  the  trees  early  in  the  season  would  cause  greater  development 
of  the  blossom  buds.  Thus,  early  maturing  hardy  branches  would 
be  secured,  but  the  advantage  might  be  greatly  outweighed  be- 
cause tender  blossom  buds  resulted  at  the  same  time.  It  seems 
advisable  to  keep  the  trees  growing  later  in  the  summertime  than 


18 


• Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


is  the  common  practice,  thus  securing  hardy  blossom  buds,  but 
taking  a chance  of  having  winterkilling  of  the  wood.  There  is 
no  evidence  that  there  is  much  danger  of  killing  back  of  the  new 
growths  during  the  winter  unless  they  are  at  least  two  feet  in 
length.  Further,  there  is  little  probability  of  older  bearing  trees 
making  this  much  growth  under  the  climatic  conditions  usually 
prevailing  in  Wisconsin. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  the  blossom  buds  on  spurs  are 
hardier  than  those  borne  laterally  along  the  longer  growths 
(Table  VI)  : 


Table  VI.  Bud  Injury  of  Lateral  and  Spur  Blossoms,  1918  to  1920' 


Injury 

Av.  Bios 

. per  bud 

Bios,  per  100  buds 

Variety 

Laterals 

Spurs 

Lateral 

Spur 

Lateral 

Spur 

Richmond 

80.9 

40.8 

1.76 

2.39 

33.6 

141.5 

Montmorency 

65.6 

26.1 

1.79 

2.24 

61.5 

165.4 

The  data  in  Table  VI  help  to  explain  how  the  trees  with  many 
spur  buds  give  larger  yields  than  those  with  few  (Table  V).  The 
effect  of  cultural  treatments  upon  blossom  bud  hardiness  are 
shown  by  Table  VII. 


Table  VII.  Percentages  of  Dead  Blossom  Buds  on  Spurs  of  Trees 
in  the  Cultural  Plats 


Variety 

Plat 

1920 

1921 

Average 

Richmond _ __  _ _ 

Check 

51.0 

41.5 

46.3 

Pruned 

30.3 

39.5 

34.9 

Nitrate  and  pruning..  

22.3 

22.5 

22.4 

Montmorency 

C!hecV 

46.8 

5.0 

25.9 

Pruned  

18.0 

2.0 

10.0 

Nitrate  and  pruning 

11.8 

1.0 

6.4 

Richmond 

Poorly  Vegetative 

62.0 

25.0 

43.5 

Highly  Vegetative 

14.8 

6.0 

10.4 

Montmorency 

Poorly  Vegetative 

31.0 

3.0 

17.0 

Highly  Vegetative 

7.8 

2.0 

4.9 

A marked  reduction  in  the  winter  injury  of  the  blossom  buds 
occurred  on  the  pruned  and  fertilized  trees.*  The  same  difference 
is  noted  in  general  on  highly  vegetative  trees  as  compared  to 
poorly  vegetative  trees.  Another  fact  in  favor  of  having  strong- 


• Development  and  Injury  of  Cherry  Buds  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  52. 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


19 


growing  trees  is  that  they  usually  develop  fruits  from  a higher 
percentage  of  blossoms  than  do  the  weakly  growing  trees. 

Dropping  of  Cherries  May  Reduce  Yield 

In  some  seasons  the  premature  dropping  of  the  fruits  appar- 
ently reduces  the  crop  seriously.  Some  phases  of  this  problem 
have  been  considered.  One  of  the  principal  lines  investigated  was 
that  of  pollination.  A large  number  of  hand  pollinations  were 
made  in  1920  (Fig.  12)  in  addition  to  observing  insect  and  wind 
relations  to  pollination.  The  results  of  1921  appear  practically 
the  same  as  for  the  previous  season,  but  are  less  complete  be- 
cause of  frost  injury  during  the  late  blossoming  period.  A frost 
occurring  shortly  after  the  pollinating  was  done  injured  the  blos- 
soms within  the  bags  quite  seriously,  although  it  had  very  little 
effect  upon  those  which  were  exposed.  Table  VIII  shows  the 
pollination  results  of  1920 : 


F'ig.  12.— METHOD  OF  BAGGING  POLLINATED  BRANCHES. 

This  fine  type  of  Richmond  tree  is  just  beginning-  to  need  some 
heading  back  as  shown  by  the  arrow.  The  abundant  blossoming  follows 
a long  terminal  growth  and  the  resulting  spur  formation.  (See  Fig.  14.) 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Table  VIII.  Pollination  Results  at  Sturgeon  Bay,  1920 


Variety 

Pollen  or  Treatment 

No. 

Set 

Per  cent 
-Set 

S el  fed 

617 

179 

29.1 

Montmorency 

652 

184 

28.2 

Morello 

487 

125 

25.7 

Baldwin — _ 

130 

7 

5.4 

Late  Duke...  _. 

92 

2 

2.2 

Governor  Wood 

146 

15 

10.3 

Emasculated— not  pollinated 

439 

0 

0.0 

Emasculated — not  bagged _ 

293 

17 

5.8 

Not  emasculated— bagged.  __  

376 

23 

6.1 

Check 

708 

341 

48.2 

Selfed ____  

480 

83 

17.6 

TVT  a n t.m  n RP  j\  (*  y 

Richmond 

489 

101 

20.7 

Morello  

233 

30 

12.9 

Baldwin 

60 

1 

1-.7 

Late  Duke 

52 

2 

3.9 

Governor  Wood . 

70 

4 

5.7 

Emasculated— not  pollinated—  _ . 

368 

1 

0.3 

Emasculated — not  bagged 

407 

19 

4.7 

Not  emasculated— bagged 

532 

103 

19.4 

Check 

907 

444 

48.9 

Fig.  13— RESULTS  OF  HAND  POLLINATION  WORK,  1920. 

This  photograph  was  taken  after  the  “first  drop.”  The  small  fruits 
shown  are  part  of  the  “second  drop.”  Some  of  the  large  fruits  may  fall 
later  during  the  “third  drop.”  (A)  A branch  which  was  covered  with  a 
bag  during  blossoming  (B)  A check  branch  (natural  pollination)  (C) 
Emasculated  and  then  self  pollinated  Early  Richmond  (D)  Emasculated 
and  bagged  but  not  pollinated.  (E)  Emasculated  and  left  uncovered 
without  hand  pollination.  The  fruits  setting  are  from  “wind  pollination.” 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


21 


Richmond  and  Montmorency  Are  Self-Fertile  Varieties 

The  fact  of  greatest  practical  interest  is  probably  that  the  two 
principal  varieties  grown,  Richmond  and  Montmorency,  are  both 
highly  inter-fertile  and  self-fertile  (Fig.  13).  This  would  seem 
to  eliminate  any  need  of  planting  different  varieties  together  for 
the  purpose  of  being  pollinizers.  Other  items  are : 

1.  Little  pollen  is  carried  about  in  the  wind.  The  jarring  of 
the  blossoms  by  air  currents  appears,  however,  to  be  of  great  aid 


Fig-.  14. — SOUR  CHERRY  BLOSSOMS  HAVE  A NATURAL  POSITION 
AIDING  CLOSE  POLLINATION. 

Note  the  abundant  spur  formation  on  the  long  one-year-old  shoots. 

to  pollination.  A very  large  percentage  of  the  blossoms  have  a 
natural  position  such  that  pollen  would  fall  from  the  anthers 
upon  the  stigmas  and  insure  pollination  (Fig.  14). 

2.  Pollination  appears  to  take  place  without  the  aid  of  insects. 
At  least  in  1920,  no  pollen  carrying  insects  visited  the  cherry 
blossoms  during  the  blossoming  period.  The  few  wild  bees  and 
honey  bees  which  were  present  worked  in  wild  flowers,  straw- 
berries and  apples.  Largely  the  same  condition  prevailed  in 
1921. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


3.  Microscopic  examination  of  the  fallen  fruits  shows  that 
practically  all  of  them  had  been  pollinated. 

Setting  of  the  Fruit  Is  Related  to  the  Growth  Conditions 

From  the  pollination  studies  it  is  concluded  that  the  need  for 
cross-pollination  is  usually  of  minor  importance  in  securing  a set 
of  sour  cherries  in  Wisconsin.  Interest  in  the  problem  of  early 
falling  of  the  green  fruits  changed,  then,  for  the  time,  from  a 


Fig.  15. — THE  PRESENCE  OF  SPUR  BUDS  IS  CORRELATED  WITH 

PRODUCTION. 


This  picture  clearly  and  fairly  shows  the  relation  of  growth  and  yield. 
Young  trees  frequently  bear  like  the  branch  at  the  left.  This  is  not 
because  they  are  young,  but  because  they  make  more  growth  than 
older  trees.  Unless  pruned  and  fertilized,  older  trees  bear  like  the 
branches  on  the  right.  (See  Fig.  1.) 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


23 


study  of  dropping  to  observation  of  the  conditions  associated  with 
setting  of  the  fruits.  In  other  words,  attention  was  directed  to- 
wards where  the  cherries  were  rather  than  where  they  were  not. 
Looking  at  the  problem  from  this  angle,  it  was  soon  found  that, 
as  in  other  seasons,  the  heavily  yielding  trees  were  those  with 
many  spur  buds  (Figs.  1 and  15).  This  was  more  pronounced 
than  in  some  years,  as  1921,  because  of  the  rather  severe  injury 
to  blossom  buds,  especially  the  lateral  blossom  buds,  in  the  season 
previous  to  1920.  Extensive  observations  showed  that  there  were 
no  heavily  bearing  Richmond  trees  that  did  not  have  many  spur 
buds,  although  2 or  3 per  cent  of  the  trees  which  had  many  spurs 
did  not  produce  large  yields  in  1920. 

Table  IX  shows  a typical  case  of  a high-yielding  tree  with  many 
spurs  (Fig.  16)  and  a low-yielding  tree  with  few  spurs  (Fig.  17). 
The  former  tree  produced  over  twice  the  fruit  of  the  latter  one 
(Fig.  18).  Practically  all  of  this  increase  in  yield  was  produced 
on  the  spurs.  Table  IX  does  not  show  the  full  difference  in 
yield,  as  the  fruit  on  the  low-producing  tree  was  riper  and  larger. 
Consequently  fewer  cherries  were  needed  to  fill  a quart.  The 
fruits  of  the  more  vegetative  trees  ripen  more  slowly.  Also,  the 
cherries  on  terminals  ripen  earlier  than  on  spurs,  as  a rule.  A 
later  picking  of  the  cherries  on  the  high-yielding  tree  would  have 
increased  the  total  yield  by  8 to  10  quarts. 


Table  IX.  Distribution  of  Fruit  on  High  and  Low  Yielding  Rich- 
mond Trees,  1920 


Yield  in  quarts0 

Percentage  of  totals 

Laterals 

Young 

Older 

Young 

Old 

Fruits 

Class 

1919 

spurs  18 

spurs 

Total 

Laterals 

spurs 

spurs 

per  qt. 

High 

22.5 

22.5 

10.5 

55.5 

40'.  5 

40.5 

19.0 

301.5 

Low 

16.75 

7.0 

1.4 

25.15 

66.6 

27.8 

5.6 

245.5 

0 Cherries  were  “milked,”  that  is,  picked  off  the  stems  for  the  cannery. 


The  relation  of  yield  to  the  spur  fruiting  system  is  less  evident 
in  seasons  when  winter  injury  of  the  blossom  buds  is  less  severe. 
The  fact  that  heavy-producing  trees  bear  a large  percentage  of 
the  crop  on  spurs  is,  however,  evidence  of  the  relative  importance 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Fig-.  16. — TYPE  OF  HIGH  YIELDING  RICHMOND,  1921. 

Note  the  strong  vegetative  growth,  12  to  18  inches,  and  relative  open- 
ness of  top.  These  conditions  favor  spur  production  and  longer  life  of 
the  spurs.  (See  Fig.  11;  also  Fig.  14.) 

of  the  spurs  in  securing  large  yields.  This  is  especially  pro- 
nounced in  high-yielding  Montmorency  trees  (Table  X),  even  in 
years  when  the  laterals  bear  well. 

Table  X.  Distribution  of  Fruit  in  Relation  to  Yield,  1921 


Yield  in  quarts 


Variety- 


Total  Laterals  Spurs 


Percentage  of  total 


Laterals  Spurs 


Richmond. 


Montmorency. 


13 

34.5 

47. 

48. 
60 

59. 

62. 

71.5 
76. 


9.5 

26. 

32. 

32. 

39.5 

22.5 

22. 

27.5 


3.5 

8.5 

15. 

16. 

20.5 

38.5 
40. 
44. 
46. 


73.1 

75.4 

68.1 
66.6 
65.8 

38.1 

35.5 

38.4 

39.5 


26.9 
24.6 

31.9 
33.3 
34.2 

61.9 

64.5 

61.6 
60.5 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


25 


Fig.  17. — TYPE  OF'  LOW  YIELDING  RICHMOND,  1920. 

Such  trees  make  a weaker  growth,  6 to  10  inches  and  generally  have 
thick,  dense  tops.  Spurs  neither  form  nor  live  long  in  such  conditions. 
(See  Fig.  16.) 


Fig.  18.— CHERRIES  FROM  HIGH  AND  LOW  YIELDING  RICHMOND 

TREES,  1920. 

The  boxes  from  the  high  producing  tree  are  marked  “H”  and  those 
from  the  low  producing  tree  “L.”  Note  the  marked  difference  in  yield 
from  spurs.  There  is  relatively  little  difference  in  production  from  the 
lateral  blossom  buds. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Montmorency  Spurs  Bear  Better  Than  Richmond  Spurs 

Table  X calls  attention  again  to  the  fact  that  Montmorency  is, 
in  general,  a heavier  fruiting  and  more  consistently  fruitful  va- 
riety than  Richmond.  The  data  in  Table  XI  indicate  how  this 
occurs,  in  part.  While  this  latter  table  does  not  show  that  the 


Fig.  19.— MONTMORENCY  SPURS  FROM  BLOSSOM  BUDS  WHILE 
BEARING  FRUIT. 

Note  the  large  number  of  leaves.  A bud  forms  with  nearly  every  leaf. 
Compare  with  Fig.  20. 

individual  spurs  live  and  fruit  longer  on  Montmorency,  it  does 
show  that  the  spurs  of  this  variety  tend  to  form  blossom  buds  the 
same  season  they  are  in  bearing  (Fig.  19)  and  that  Richmond 
spurs  form  relatively  few  buds  at  the  same  time  they  are  bearing 
fruit  (Fig.  20).  This  shows  the  importance  of  having  a fruiting 
system  in  process  of  being  continually  renewed  in  Richmond  if 
consistently  high  yields  are  to  be  secured. 


Better  Cherry  Yields 


27 


Table  XI.  Production  and  Bud  Formation  on  Spurs,  1920 


Variety 

Age  of  wood 
producing 
spurs 

Per  cent  spurs 
fruiting 

Fruits  per 
spur 

Fruits  per 
100  spurs 

Per  cent  fruit- 
ing spurs 
forming  buds 

No.  per  spur 

Per  cent  non- 
fruiting spurs 
forming  buds 

No.  per  spur 

New  buds  per 
100  spurs0 

Richmond 

1918  growth 

85.5 

3.47 

304.7 

38.5 

2.43 

29.0 

1.98 

88.3 

Older  spurs 

39.0 

2.39 

93.2 

90.  C 

3.22 

76.5 

3.57 

279.7 

Montmorency— 

1918  growth 

92.5 

3. 84 

355.2 

84.5 

2.85 

69.0 

2.89 

235.7 

Older  spurs 

69.0 

2.99 

206. 3 

92.0 

3.25 

89^0 

3.21 

294.8 

Fig.  20. — RICHMOND  SPURS  RARELY  FORM  MANY  BLOSSOM  BUDS 
WHILE  BEARING  FRUIT. 

Note  the  few  leaves  present.  Buds  form  only  in  the  axes  of  the  leaf 
stems.  Compare  with  Fig.  19.  Large  yields  on  Richmond  depend  upon 
having  some  new  spurs  formed  each  year. 

Cultural  Treatments  Affect  the  Set  of  Fruit 

As  the  set  of  fruit  seems  to  be  related  to  the  growth  of  the 
trees,  it  would  be  expected  that  any  cultural  treatment  which 
would  modify  the  growth  would  also  affect  the  setting  of  the 
fruit.  (Table  XII.) 


° Not  counting  the  new  spurs  that  formed  on  1919  wood  during  the  growing 
season  of  1920. 


osmds  O0I 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


Table  XII.  Set  of  Fruit  on  Cultural  Plats,  Montmorency 


Plat 

Number  of  fruits  per  100  blossoms 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Average 

Check  

31.9 

30.9 

32.4 

31.7 

Heavy  pruning 

48.8 

44.8 

43.7 

45.8 

Pruning  _ 

39.7 

39.2 

42.6 

40.5 

Nitrate  and  pruning  __  __  . — 

49.2 

42.9 

43.3 

45.1 

Marked  effects  upon  the  percentage  of  blossoms  setting  fruits 
are  apparent,  even  in  the  first  year  of  treatment,  1919.  The  use 
of  a nitrogenous  fertilizer  on  moderately  vegetative  trees  seems 
to  have  a very  marked  effect  in  increasing  the  setting  of  fruit. 
Further  definite  evidence  of  this  was  secured  by  a grower  who 
used  both  2 and  4 pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  tree  in  com- 
parison to  no  commercial  fertilizer.  The  results  follow : Per 

cent  of  set  on  check  plat,  32.8;  where  2 pounds  of  fertilizer  were 
used,  43.4  per  cent,  and  with  4 pounds,  44.7.  In  the  case  of 
very  vegetative  trees  the  effects  are  generally  less  marked.  In 
fact,  the  set  of  fruit  on  such  trees  appears  to  be  near  a maximum, 
so  fertilization  maintains  rather  than  increases  the  percentage  set 
in  such  a case..  Under  average  cultural  conditions  the  percentage 
set  of  fruit  on  a tree  is  found  to  be  closely  related  to  the  yield. 
That  is,  the  stronger  growing  trees  generally  set  and  mature  more 
fruits  than  the  less  vegetative  ones.  Exceptions  are,  however, 
sometimes  found ; see  Table  XIII.  The  causes  of  these  varia- 
tions and  their  practical  significance  are  being  made  the  subject 
of  further  study. 

Table  XIII.  Set  of  Fruit  on  Individual  Trees,  1920 


Variety 

Plat 

Yield 

quarts 

Fruits 
per  100 
blossoms 

R.iehmnnd 

Heavy  pruning  _ ...... 

8 

10.1 

Check  __ 

11 

15.0 

Pruning 

11 

15.02 

Check  

23 

29.4 

Heavy  pruning  

24 

38.73 

Pruning . 

25 

42.4 

Nitrate  and  pruning 

26 

29.34 

Nitrate  and  pruning.  

52 

51.61 

Mont.mnreney 

Cheelr  _ 

20 

30.48 

Check  

22 

31.17 

Pruning 

30 

36.1 

Nitrate  and  pruning 

31 

45.32 

Heavy  pruning  

35 

39.4 

Pruning..  _ 

37 

42.2 

Nitrate  and  pruning 

57 

40.5 

Better  Cherry  Yields 


29 


Very  large  numbers  of  blossoms  generally  result  in  heavy  early 
dropping  of  the  immature  fruits.  Pruning  may  have  part  of  its 
stimulating  effect  upon  setting  through  reducing  the  number  of 
blossoms  and  as  a consequence  increasing  the  opportunity  to  set. 
Even  after  causing  a reduction  in  fruiting  surface  larger  crops 
are  produced.  This  leads  to  a consideration  of  the  time  to  ex- 
pect effects  upon  production  after  having  varied  the  cultural 
practices. 

Two  Years  Before  Maximum  Effects  of  a Cultural 
Treatment  Appear 

Frequently  a grower  changes  his  cultural  practices  almost 
every  year  because  maximum  crops  were  not  secured  immediate- 
ly after  each  trial  treatment.  Figures  1 and  15  indicate  that  the 
yield  — both  heavy  and  light  — was  largely  determined  by  the 
amount  of  growth  made  two  years  before  the  cherries  were  borne. 
To  bring  this  more  clearly  to  mind,  data  similar  to  that  on  pages 
12  and  15  of  the  pruning  bulletin*  are  presented  in  Table  XIV : 


Table  XIY.  Relation  of  Length  of  Growth  to  Percentage  of  Leaf 
Buds,  1917  to  1920 


Length,  Inches 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

Richmond  _ _ 

0.8 

2.5 

12.5 

25:3 

39.3 

59.4 

78.3 

83.7 

Montmorency  

3.1 

4.7 

15.6 

29.9 

56.9 

74.8 

80.8 

92.5 

From  this  table  it  is  clearly  apparent  that  a growth  of  15  to  16 
inches  is  needed  if  large  numbers  of  leaf  buds  are  to  be  formed. 
The  importance  of  having  these  buds  lies  in  the  fact  that  spurs 
grow  only  from  leaf  buds.  Blossom  buds  produce  no  spur  growth. 
It  is  clear,  then,  that  a long  terminal  growth  in  any  season,  as  in 
1918,  results  in  spur  production  a year  later,  such  as  in  1919,  and 
fruit  production  two  years  later,  such  as  in  1920  (Fig.  15).  In 
other  words,  a change  from  poor  to  good  culture  is  principally 
evident  only  after  two  or  three  seasons.  Likewise,  a change  from 
sufficient  to  insufficient  culture  may  be  clearly  evident  in  reduced 
yields  only  after  some  seasons. 

Blossom  bud  formation  varies  somewhat  from  season  to  season. 
That  is,  a six  or  seven  inch  growth  will  have  many  leaf  buds 
one  year  whereas  similar  lengths  will  have  few  to  no  leaf  buds 


* Prune  the  Cherry  Trees.  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  298. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  344 


in  another  year.  As  a rule  the  growths  in  the  top  of  the  tree 
will  have  more  leaf  buds  on  a given  length  than  those  around 
the  bottom.  There  is  also  a difference  in  blossom  bud  formation 
in  different  trees.  Poorly  vegetative  trees  will  generally  have 
fewer  leaf  buds  per  unit  length  than  will  strongly  vegetative 
trees.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  enough  evidence  is  available 
to  indicate  clearly  that  a consistently  strong  growth  generally 
results  in  consistently  heavy  bearing. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
P.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust.  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
P.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 

Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 
B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Klein heinz.  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 


H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husandry 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke.  Agr.  Chemistry 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Carver,  Genetics 

A.  L.  DuRant,  Animal  Husbandry 
C.  M.  Gerl,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  W.  Heal.  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  D.  Samuels,  Soils 

E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Stevens,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  N.  Stroman,  Genetics 

M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 

C.  W.  Weber,  Veterinary  Science 
J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


630.7W75B 
BULLETIN.  MADISON 
326-344  1921-22 


3 0112  019929501 


